Substituted pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidines as RET kinase inhibitors

ABSTRACT

Provided herein are compounds of the Formula I: and tautomers and pharmaceutically acceptable salts and solvates thereof, wherein R1 and R2 have the meanings given in the specification, which are inhibitors of RET kinase and are useful in the treatment and prevention of diseases which can be treated with a RET kinase inhibitor, including RET-associated diseases and disorders.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to U.S. application Ser. Nos. 62/676,425, filed on May 25, 2018, 62/669,317, filed on May 9, 2018, and 62/619,055, filed on Jan. 18, 2018, each of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties.

BACKGROUND

The present disclosure relates to novel compounds which exhibit Rearranged during Transfection (RET) kinase inhibition, pharmaceutical compositions comprising the compounds, processes for making the compounds, and the use of the compounds in therapy. More particularly, it relates to substituted pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine compounds useful in the treatment and prevention of diseases which can be treated with a RET kinase inhibitor, including RET-associated diseases and disorders.

RET is a single-pass transmembrane receptor belonging to the tyrosine kinase superfamily that is required for normal development, maturation and maintenance of several tissues and cell types (Mulligan, L. M., Nature Reviews Cancer, 2014, 14, 173-186). The extracellular portion of the RET kinase contains four calcium-dependent cadherin-like repeats involved in ligand binding and a juxtamembrane cysteine-rich region necessary for the correct folding of the RET extracellular domain, while the cytoplasmic portion of the receptor includes two tyrosine kinase subdomains.

RET signaling is mediated by the binding of a group of soluble proteins of the glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) family ligands (GFLs), which also includes neurturin (NTRN), artemin (ARTN) and persephin (PSPN) (Arighi et al., Cytokine Growth Factor Rev., 2005, 16, 441-67). Unlike other receptor tyrosine kinases, RET does not directly bind to GFLs and requires an additional co-receptor: that is, one of four GDNF family receptor-α (GFRα) family members, which are tethered to the cell surface by a glycosylphosphatidylinositol linkage. GFLs and GFRα family members form binary complexes that in turn bind to RET and recruit it into cholesterol-rich membrane subdomains, which are known as lipid rafts, where RET signaling occurs.

Upon binding of the ligand-co-receptor complex, RET dimerization and autophosphorylation on intracellular tyrosine residues recruits adaptor and signaling proteins to stimulate multiple downstream pathways. Adaptor protein binding to these docking sites leads to activation of Ras-MAPK and PI3K-Akt/mTOR signaling pathways or to recruitment of the CBL family of ubiquitin ligases that functions in RET downregulation of the RET-mediated functions.

Aberrant RET expression and/or activity have been demonstrated in different cancers and in gastrointestinal disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

It has now been found that substituted pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine compounds are inhibitors of RET kinase, and are useful for treating diseases such as proliferative diseases such as cancers.

Accordingly, provided herein is a compound of the Formula I

and tautomers, stereoisomers, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts and solvates thereof, wherein R¹ and R² are as defined herein.

Also provided herein is a pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, in admixture with a pharmaceutically acceptable diluent or carrier.

Also provided herein is a method of inhibiting cell proliferation, in vitro or in vivo, the method comprising contacting a cell with an effective amount of a compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or a pharmaceutical composition thereof as defined herein.

Also provided herein is a method of treating a RET-associated disease or disorder in a patient in need of such treatment, the method comprising administering to the patient a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or a pharmaceutical composition thereof as defined herein.

Also provided herein is a method of treating cancer and/or inhibiting metastasis associated with a particular cancer in a patient in need of such treatment, the method comprising administering to the patient a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof or a pharmaceutical composition thereof as defined herein.

Also provided herein is a method of treating irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and/or pain associated with IBS in a patient in need of such treatment, the method comprising administering to the patient a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof or a pharmaceutical composition thereof as defined herein.

Also provided is a method of providing supportive care to a cancer patient, including preventing or minimizing gastrointestinal disorders, such as diarrhea, associated with treatment, including chemotherapeutic treatment, the method comprising administering to the patient a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof or a pharmaceutical composition thereof as defined herein.

Also provided herein is a compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or a pharmaceutical composition thereof as defined herein for use in therapy.

Also provided herein is a compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof or a pharmaceutical composition thereof as defined herein for use in the treatment of cancer and/or inhibiting metastasis associated with a particular cancer.

Also provided herein is a compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof or a pharmaceutical composition thereof as defined herein for use in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) or pain associated with IBS.

Also provided is a compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof or a pharmaceutical composition thereof as defined herein for use providing supportive care to a cancer patient, including preventing or minimizing gastrointestinal disorders, such as diarrhea, associated with treatment, including chemotherapeutic treatment.

Also provided herein is a compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof for use in the inhibition of RET kinase activity.

Also provided herein is a compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof or a pharmaceutical composition thereof as defined herein, for use in the treatment of a RET-associated disease or disorder.

Also provided herein is the use of a compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as defined herein in the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment of cancer and/or inhibiting metastasis associated with a particular cancer.

Also provided herein is the use of a compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as defined herein in the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) or pain associated with IBS.

Also provided herein is the use of a compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as defined herein in the manufacture of a medicament for providing supportive care to a cancer patient, including preventing or minimizing gastrointestinal disorders, such as diarrhea, associated with treatment, including chemotherapeutic treatment.

Also provided herein is a use of a compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as defined herein in the manufacture of a medicament for the inhibition of RET kinase activity.

Also provided herein is the use of a compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as defined herein, in the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment of a RET-associated disease or disorder.

Also provided herein is a method for treating cancer in a patient in need thereof, the method comprising (a) determining if the cancer is associated with a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same (e.g., a RET-associated cancer); and (b) if the cancer is determined to be associated with a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same (e.g., a RET-associated cancer), administering to the patient a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or a pharmaceutical composition thereof.

Also provided herein is a pharmaceutical combination for treating cancer (e.g., a RET-associated cancer, such as a RET-associated cancer having one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations) in a patient in need thereof, which comprises (a) a compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, (b) an additional therapeutic agent, and (c) optionally at least one pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, wherein the compound of Formula I or the pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and the additional therapeutic are formulated as separate compositions or dosages for simultaneous, separate or sequential use for the treatment of cancer, wherein the amounts of the compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and of the additional therapeutic agent are together effective in treating the cancer. Also provided herein is a pharmaceutical composition comprising such a combination. Also provided herein is the use of such a combination for the preparation of a medicament for the treatment of cancer. Also provided herein is a commercial package or product comprising such a combination as a combined preparation for simultaneous, separate or sequential use; and to a method of treatment of cancer a patient in need thereof.

Also provided herein is a method for reversing or preventing acquired resistance to an anticancer drug, comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, to a patient at risk for developing or having acquired resistance to an anticancer drug. In some embodiments, the patient is administered a dose of the anticancer drug (e.g., at substantially the same time as a dose of a compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof is administered to the patient).

Also provided herein is a method of delaying and/or preventing development of cancer resistant to an anticancer drug in an individual, comprising administering to the individual an effective amount of a compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, before, during, or after administration of an effective amount of the anticancer drug.

Also provided herein is a method of treating an individual with cancer who has an increased likelihood of developing resistance to an anticancer drug, comprising administering to the individual (a) an effective amount of a compound of Formula I before, during, or after administration of (b) an effective amount of the anticancer drug.

Also provided are methods of treating an individual with a RET-associated cancer that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations that increase resistance of the cancer to a first RET inhibitor (e.g., one or more amino acid substitutions in the kinase domain (e.g., amino acid positions 700 to 1012 in a wildtype RET protein), a gatekeeper amino acid (e.g., amino acid position 804 in a wildtype RET protein), the P-loop (e.g., amino acid positions 730-737 in a wildtype RET protein), the X-DFG residue (e.g., amino acid position 891 in a wildtype RET protein), ATP cleft solvent front amino acids (e.g., amino acid positions 806-811 in a wildtype RET protein), the activation loop (e.g., amino acid positions 891-916 in a wildtype RET protein), the C-helix and loop preceeding the C-helix (e.g., amino acid positions 768-788 in a wildtype RET protein), and/or the ATP binding site (e.g., amino acid positions 730-733, 738, 756, 758, 804, 805, 807, 811, 881, and 892 in a wildtype RET protein) (e.g., a substitution at amino acid position 804, e.g., V804M, V804L, or V804E, or a substitution at amino acid position 810, e.g., G810S, G810R, G810C, G810A, G810V, and G810D, and/or one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations listed in Tables 3 and 4), that include administering a compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, before, during, or after administration of another anticancer drug (e.g., a second RET kinase inhibitor). See also J. Kooistra, G. K. Kanev, O. P. J. Van Linden, R. Leurs, I. J. P. De Esch, and C. De Graaf, “KLIFS: A structural kinase-ligand interaction database,” Nucleic Acids Res., vol. 44, no. D1, pp. D365-D371, 2016; and O. P. J. Van Linden, A. J. Kooistra, R. Leurs, I. J. P. De Esch, and C. De Graaf, “KLIFS: A knowledge-based structural database to navigate kinase-ligand interaction space,” J. Med. Chem., vol. 57, no. 2, pp. 249-277, 2014, both of which are incorporated by reference in their entirety herein. In some embodiments, a wildtype RET protein is the exemplary wildtype RET protein described herein.

Also provided are methods of treating an individual with a RET-associated cancer that include administering a compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, before, during, or after administration of another anticancer drug (e.g., a first RET kinase inhibitor or another kinase inhibitor).

Also provided herein is a method for treating irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) in a patient in need thereof, the method comprising (a) determining if the IBS is associated with a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same; and (b) if the IBS is determined to be associated with a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, administering to the patient a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or a pharmaceutical composition thereof.

Also provided herein is a pharmaceutical combination for treating irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) in a patient in need thereof, which comprises administering (a) a compound of General Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, (b) an additional therapeutic agent, and (c) optionally at least one pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, for simultaneous, separate or sequential use for the treatment of IBS, wherein the amounts of the compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and of the additional therapeutic agent are together effective in treating the IBS. Also provided herein is a pharmaceutical composition comprising such a combination. Also provided herein is the use of such a combination for the preparation of a medicament for the treatment of the IBS. Also provided herein is a commercial package or product comprising such a combination as a combined preparation for simultaneous, separate or sequential use; and to a method of treatment of the IBS a patient in need thereof.

Also provided herein is a process for preparing a compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof.

Also provided herein is a compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof obtained by a process of preparing the compound as defined herein.

Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Methods and materials are described herein for use in the present invention; other, suitable methods and materials known in the art can also be used. The materials, methods, and examples are illustrative only and not intended to be limiting. All publications, patent applications, patents, sequences, database entries, and other references mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety. In case of conflict, the present specification, including definitions, will control.

Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following detailed description and FIGURES, and from the claims.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Provided herein is a compound of Formula I:

and tautomers, stereoisomers, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts and solvates thereof, wherein:

R¹ is a 5-membered heteroaryl ring having 2-3 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N, O and S, wherein R¹ is optionally substituted with 1-3 substituents independently selected from halogen, C1-C6 alkyl, fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl-, C2-C6 alkenyl, Cyc¹, hetCyc¹, Ar¹, hetAr¹, (C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)—, (C1-C6 alkyl)₂-P(═O)—, and R′R″NC(═O)— wherein R′ is hydrogen and R″ is hydrogen, C1-C alkyl or Cyc²,

provided that when R¹ is an isoxazolyl ring, then R¹ is substituted with 2 substituents independently selected from halogen, C1-C6 alkyl, fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl-, C2-C6 alkenyl, Cyc¹, hetCyc¹, Ar¹, hetAr¹, (C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)—, (C1-C6 alkyl)₂-P(═O)—, and R′R″NC(═O)— wherein R′ is hydrogen and R″ is hydrogen, C1-C alkyl or Cyc²;

Cyc¹ is a 3-6 membered saturated or partially unsaturated cycloalkyl ring optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from hydroxy, C1-C6 alkyl and oxo;

hetCyc¹ is a 4-6 membered saturated or partially unsaturated heterocyclic ring having 1-2 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N and O and optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from C1-C6 alkyl, hydroxy, and oxo;

Ar¹ is phenyl optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from C1-C6 alkyl, fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, halogen, and hydroxy;

Cyc² is C3-C6 cycloalkyl optionally substituted with hydroxy;

hetAr¹ is a 5-6 membered heteroaryl ring having 1-3 ring nitrogen atoms and optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from C1-C6 alkyl, fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, halogen, hydroxy, and benzyl; and

R² is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, cyanoC1-C6 alkyl-, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, C3-C6 cycloalkyl or (C3-C6 cycloalkyl)C1-C6 alkyl-.

For complex chemical names employed herein, a substituent group is typically named before the group to which it attaches. For example, methoxyethyl comprises an ethyl backbone with a methoxy substituent.

The term “halogen” means —F (sometimes referred to herein as “fluoro” or “fluoros”), —Cl, —Br and —I.

The term “C1-C6 alkyl” as used herein refers to saturated linear or branched-chain monovalent hydrocarbon radicals of one to six carbon atoms. Examples include, but are not limited to, methyl, ethyl, 1-propyl, isopropyl, 1-butyl, isobutyl, sec-butyl, tert-butyl, 2-methyl-2-propyl, pentyl, neopentyl, and hexyl.

The term “fluoroC1-C6 alkyl” as used herein refers to a C1-C6 alkyl radical as defined herein, wherein one to three hydrogen atoms is replaced with one to three fluoro atoms, respectively. Examples include, but are not limited to, fluoromethyl, difluoromethyl, trifluoromethyl, 2-fluoroethyl, 2,2-difluoroethyl, 2,2,2- and trifluoroethyl.

The term “C2-C6 alkenyl” as used herein refers to refers to a linear or branched mono unsaturated hydrocarbon chain having two to six carbon atoms. Examples include, but are not limited to, ethenyl, propenyl, butenyl, or pentenyl.

The term “C1-C6 alkoxy” as used herein refers to saturated linear or branched-chain monovalent alkoxy radicals of one to six carbon atoms, wherein the radical is on the oxygen atom. Examples include methoxy, ethoxy, propoxy, isopropoxy, butoxy and tert-butoxy.

The term “(C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl” as used herein refers to saturated linear or branched-chain monovalent radicals of one to six carbon atoms, wherein one of the carbon atoms is substituted with a C1-C6 alkoxy group as defined herein. Examples include methoxymethyl (CH₃OCH₂—) and methoxyethyl (CH₃OCH₂CH₂—).

The term “hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl”, as used herein refers to saturated linear or branched-chain monovalent alkyl radicals of one to six or two to six carbon atoms, respectively, wherein one of the carbon atoms is substituted with a hydroxy group.

The term “cyano-C6 alkyl”, as used herein refers to saturated linear or branched-chain monovalent alkyl radicals of one to six or two to six carbon atoms, respectively, wherein one of the carbon atoms is substituted with a cyano group.

The term “C3-C6 cycloalkyl” as used herein refers to cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl or cyclohexyl.

The term “(C3-C6 cycloalkyl)C1-C3 alkyl” as used herein refers to a C1-C3 alkyl radical as defined herein, wherein one of the carbon atoms is substituted with a C3-C6 cycloalkyl ring. An example is cyclobutylmethyl.

The term “oxo” as used herein means an oxygen that is double bonded to a carbon atom, i.e., ═O. For example, in one embodiment when referring to hetCyc^(a), a 4-6 membered heterocyclic ring having 1-2 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N and O and substituted with an oxo may be, for example, a pyrrolidinyl ring substituted with oxo (e.g., a pyrrolidinonyl ring), which may be represented by the structure:

The term “compound,” as used herein is meant to include all stereoisomers, geometric isomers, tautomers, and isotopes of the structures depicted. Compounds herein identified by name or structure as one particular tautomeric form are intended to include other tautomeric forms unless otherwise specified.

The term “tautomer” as used herein refers to compounds whose structures differ markedly in arrangement of atoms, but which exist in easy and rapid equilibrium, and it is to be understood that compounds provided herein may be depicted as different tautomers, and when compounds have tautomeric forms, all tautomeric forms are intended to be within the scope of the invention, and the naming of the compounds does not exclude any tautomer.

It will be appreciated that certain compounds provided herein may contain one or more centers of asymmetry and may therefore be prepared and isolated in a mixture of isomers such as a racemic mixture, or in an enantiomerically pure form. An example of a tautomeric forms includes the following example:

In one embodiment, R¹ is an oxazolyl ring optionally substituted with 1-2 substituents independently selected from halogen, C1-C6 alkyl, fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl-, C2-C6 alkenyl, Cyc¹, hetCyc¹, Ar¹, hetAr¹, (C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)—, (C1-C6 alkyl)₂-P(═O)—, and R′R″NC(═O)— wherein R′ is hydrogen or C1-C6 alkyl and R″ is hydrogen, C1-C alkyl or Cyc², or an isoxazolyl ring substituted with 2 substituents independently selected from halogen, C1-C6 alkyl, fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl-, C2-C6 alkenyl, Cyc¹, hetCyc¹, Ar¹, hetAr¹, (C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)—, (C1-C6 alkyl)₂-P(═O)—, and R′R″NC(═O)— wherein R′ is hydrogen or C1-C6 alkyl and R″ is hydrogen, C1-C alkyl or Cyc².

In one embodiment, R¹ is an isoxazolyl ring substituted with 2 substituents independently selected from halogen, C1-C6 alkyl, fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl-, C2-C6 alkenyl, Cyc¹, hetCyc¹, Ar¹, hetAr¹, (C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)—, (C1-C6 alkyl)₂-P(═O)—, and R′R″NC(═O)— wherein R′ is hydrogen or C1-C6 alkyl and R″ is hydrogen, C1-C alkyl or Cyc².

In one embodiment, R¹ is an isoxazolyl ring substituted with 2 substituents independently selected from halogen, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, Cyc¹, hetCyc¹, Ar¹ and hetAr¹.

In one embodiment, R¹ is:

wherein R^(a) is hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl or Cyc¹; and

R^(b) is halogen, Cyc¹, hetCyc¹, Ar¹ or hetAr¹.

In one embodiment, R^(a) is hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl.

In one embodiment, R^(a) is Cyc¹.

In one embodiment, R^(b) is halogen.

In one embodiment, R^(b) is Cyc¹.

In one embodiment, R^(b) is hetCyc¹.

In one embodiment, R^(b) is Ar¹.

In one embodiment, R^(b) is hetAr¹.

In one embodiment, non-limiting examples of R¹ include the structures:

In one embodiment, non-limiting examples of R¹ include the structures:

In one embodiment, R¹ is a pyrazolyl or imidazolyl, each of which is optionally substituted with 1-3 substituents independently selected from halogen, C1-C6 alkyl, fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl-, C2-C6 alkenyl, Cyc¹, hetCyc¹, Ar¹, hetAr¹, (C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)—, (C1-C6 alkyl)₂-P(═O)—, and R′R″NC(═O)— wherein R′ is hydrogen or C1-C6 alkyl and R″ is hydrogen, C1-C alkyl or Cyc².

In one embodiment, R¹ is a pyrazolyl or imidazolyl, each of which is optionally substituted with 1-3 substituents independently selected from C1-C6 alkyl, fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, C2-C6 alkenyl, Cyc¹, hetCyc¹, and Ar¹.

In one embodiment, R¹ is a pyrazolyl ring optionally substituted with 1-3 substituents independently selected from C1-C6 alkyl, fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, C2-C6 alkenyl, Cyc¹, hetCyc¹, and Ar¹.

In one embodiment, R¹ is a pyrazolyl ring having the structure

wherein

R^(c) is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, C2-C6 alkenyl, Cyc¹, or Ar¹;

R^(d) is C1-C6 alkyl, Cyc¹ or hetCyc¹; and

R^(e) is hydrogen or C1-C6 alkyl.

In one embodiment, R^(c) is hydrogen.

In one embodiment, R^(c) is C1-C6 alkyl.

In one embodiment, R^(c) is fluoroC1-C6 alkyl.

In one embodiment, R^(c) is C2-C6 alkenyl.

In one embodiment, R^(c) is Cyc¹.

In one embodiment, R^(c) is hetCyc¹.

In one embodiment, R^(c) is Ar¹.

In one embodiment, R^(d) is C1-C6 alkyl.

In one embodiment, R^(d) is Cyc¹.

In one embodiment, R^(e) is hydrogen.

In one embodiment, R^(e) is C1-C6 alkyl.

In one embodiment, R¹ is a pyrazolyl ring having the structure

wherein

R^(c) is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, C2-C6 alkenyl, Cyc¹, or Ar¹;

R^(d) is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, Cyc¹ or hetCyc¹; and

R^(e) is hydrogen or C1-C6 alkyl.

In one embodiment, non-limiting examples of R include the structures:

In one embodiment, R¹ is a pyrazolyl ring having the structure

wherein R^(d) is Cyc¹.

In one embodiment, R¹ is

In one embodiment, R¹ is a pyrazolyl ring having the structure

wherein R^(g) is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, or (C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)—; and R^(h) is C1-C6 alkyl or fluoroC1-C6 alkyl.

In one embodiment, R¹ is selected from the structures:

In one embodiment, R¹ is a pyrazolyl ring having the structure

wherein R^(d) is Cyc¹.

In one embodiment, R¹ is

In one embodiment, R¹ is an imidazolyl ring having the structure

wherein R^(e) is hydrogen or C1-C6 alkyl.

In one embodiment, R¹ is

In one embodiment, R¹ is a triazolyl ring optionally substituted with a substituent selected from halogen, C1-C6 alkyl, fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl-, C2-C6 alkenyl, Cyc¹, hetCyc¹, Ar¹, hetAr¹, (C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)—, (C1-C6 alkyl)₂-P(═O)—, and R′R″NC(═O)— wherein R′ is hydrogen or C1-C6 alkyl and R″ is hydrogen, C1-C alkyl or Cyc².

In one embodiment, R¹ is a triazolyl ring optionally substituted with a substituent selected from C1-C6 alkyl and Cyc¹.

In one embodiment, R¹ is

wherein R^(f) is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl or Cyc¹.

In one embodiment R¹ is a triazolyl ring selected from the structures:

In one embodiment, R¹ is a thiadiazolyl ring optionally substituted with halogen, C1-C6 alkyl, fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl-, C2-C6 alkenyl, Cyc¹, hetCyc¹, Ar¹, hetAr¹, (C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)—, (C1-C6 alkyl)₂-P(═O)—, or R′R″NC(═O)— wherein R′ is hydrogen and R″ is hydrogen, C1-C alkyl or Cyc².

In one embodiment, R¹ is a thiadiazolyl ring substituted with halogen. In one embodiment, R¹ is

In some embodiments, R¹ is a 5-membered heteroaryl ring having 2-3 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N, O and S, wherein R¹ is optionally substituted with 2-3 substituents independently selected from halogen, C1-C6 alkyl, fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl-, C2-C6 alkenyl, Cyc¹, hetCyc¹, Ar¹, hetAr¹, (C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)—, (C1-C6 alkyl)₂-P(═O)—, and R′R″NC(═O)— wherein R′ is hydrogen and R″ is hydrogen, C1-C alkyl or Cyc².

In one embodiment, R² is hydrogen.

In one embodiment, R² is C1-C6 alkyl.

In one embodiment, R² is fluoroC1-C6 alkyl.

In one embodiment, R² is cyanoC1-C6 alkyl-.

In one embodiment, R² is hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl.

In one embodiment, R² is C3-C6 cycloalkyl

In one embodiment, R² is (C3-C6 cycloalkyl)C1-C6 alkyl-.

In one embodiment, compounds of Formula I include compounds of Formula I-A wherein:

R¹ is a 5-membered heteroaryl ring having 2 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N and O, wherein R¹ is optionally substituted with 1-3 substituents independently selected from halogen, C1-C6 alkyl, fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, C2-C6 alkenyl, Cyc¹, hetCyc¹, Ar¹ and hetAr¹,

provided that when R¹ is an isoxazolyl ring, then R¹ is substituted with 2 substituents independently selected from halogen, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, Cyc¹, hetCyc¹, Ar¹ and hetAr¹;

Cyc¹ is a 3-6 membered saturated or partially unsaturated cycloalkyl ring optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from hydroxy, C1-C6 alkyl and oxo;

hetCyc¹ is a 5-6 membered saturated or partially unsaturated heterocyclic ring having a ring oxygen atom;

Ar¹ is phenyl optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from C1-C6 alkyl, fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, halogen, and hydroxy;

hetAr¹ is a 5-6 membered heteroaryl ring having 1-2 ring nitrogen atoms and optionally substituted with one or more independently selected C1-C6 alkyl substituents; and

R² is C1-C6 alkyl.

In one embodiment of Formula I-A, R¹ is

wherein R^(a) and R^(b) are independently selected from halogen, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, Cyc¹, hetCyc¹, Ar¹ and hetAr¹.

In one embodiment, R^(a) is hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl or Cyc¹; and R^(b) is halogen, Cyc¹, hetCyc¹, Ar¹ or hetAr¹.

In one embodiment of Formula I-A, R¹ is

wherein

R^(c) is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, C2-C6 alkenyl, Cyc¹, or Ar¹;

R^(d) is C1-C6 alkyl, Cyc¹ or hetCyc¹; and

R^(e) is hydrogen or C1-C6 alkyl.

In one embodiment of Formula I-A, R² is isopropyl.

The compounds of Formula I include pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. In addition, the compounds of Formula I also include other salts of such compounds which are not necessarily pharmaceutically acceptable salts, and which may be useful as intermediates for preparing and/or purifying compounds of Formula I and/or for separating enantiomers of compounds of Formula I. Non-limiting examples of pharmaceutically acceptable salts of compounds of Formula I include trifluoroacetic acid salts.

It will further be appreciated that the compounds of Formula I or their salts may be isolated in the form of solvates, and accordingly that any such solvate is included within the scope of the present invention. For example, compounds of Formula I and salts thereof can exist in unsolvated as well as solvated forms with pharmaceutically acceptable solvents such as water, ethanol, and the like.

In one embodiment, the compounds of Formula I include the compounds of Examples 1-35 and stereoisomers and pharmaceutically acceptable salts and solvates thereof. In one embodiment, the compounds of Examples 1-35 are in the free base form. In one embodiment, the compounds of Examples 1-35 are trifluoroacetic acid salts.

The term “pharmaceutically acceptable” indicates that the compound, or salt or composition thereof is compatible chemically and/or toxicologically with the other ingredients comprising a formulation and/or the patient being treated therewith.

Compounds provided herein may also contain unnatural proportions of atomic isotopes at one or more of the atoms that constitute such compounds. That is, an atom, in particular when mentioned in relation to a compound according to Formula I, comprises all isotopes and isotopic mixtures of that atom, either naturally occurring or synthetically produced, either with natural abundance or in an isotopically enriched form. For example, when hydrogen is mentioned, it is understood to refer to ¹H, ²H, ³H or mixtures thereof; when carbon is mentioned, it is understood to refer to ¹¹C, ¹²C, ¹³C, ¹⁴C or mixtures thereof; when nitrogen is mentioned, it is understood to refer to ¹³N, ¹⁴N, ¹⁵N or mixtures thereof; when oxygen is mentioned, it is understood to refer to ¹⁴O, ¹⁵O, ¹⁶O, ¹⁷O, ¹⁸O or mixtures thereof, and when fluoro is mentioned, it is understood to refer to ¹⁸F, ¹⁹F or mixtures thereof. The compounds provided herein therefore also comprise compounds with one or more isotopes of one or more atoms, and mixtures thereof, including radioactive compounds, wherein one or more non-radioactive atoms has been replaced by one of its radioactive enriched isotopes. Radiolabeled compounds are useful as therapeutic agents, e.g., cancer therapeutic agents, research reagents, e.g., assay reagents, and diagnostic agents, e.g., in vivo imaging agents. All isotopic variations of the compounds provided herein, whether radioactive or not, are intended to be encompassed within the scope of the present invention.

For illustrative purposes, Schemes 1-3 show general methods for preparing the compounds provided herein as well as key intermediates. For a more detailed description of the individual reaction steps, see the Examples section below. Those skilled in the art will appreciate that other synthetic routes may be used to synthesize the inventive compounds. Although specific starting materials and reagents are depicted in the Schemes and discussed below, other starting materials and reagents can be easily substituted to provide a variety of derivatives and/or reaction conditions. In addition, many of the compounds prepared by the methods described below can be further modified in light of this disclosure using conventional chemistry well known to those skilled in the art.

Scheme 1 shows a process for preparing compounds of Formula I wherein R¹ is an isoxazolyl ring, R^(a) is cyclopropyl, R^(b) is hetAr¹, Ar¹, hetCyc¹ or Cyc¹, and R² as defined for Formula I. Compound 1, wherein R^(a) is cyclopropyl (commercially available), may be treated with oxalyl chloride and then malononitrile, followed by treatment with dimethylsulfate to provide compound 2. Compound 2 may be cyclized upon treatment with a hydrazine having the formula R²—NHNH₂ wherein R² is C1-C6 alkyl in the presence of a base (such as an amine base, for example triethylamine) to provide compound 3. Compound 3 may be converted to a bicyclic pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine compound 4 upon treatment with formamide, for example at elevated temperatures. Compound 4 may be halogenated upon treatment with N-bromosuccinimide or N-iodosuccinimide to provide compound 5 wherein X is Br or I, respectively. Compound 5 may be reacted with a boronic ester compound having the formula R^(b)—B(OR′)₂ where R^(b) is hetAr¹, Ar¹, hetCyc¹ or Cyc¹ wherein hetAr¹ and Ar¹ are as defined for Formula I, hetCyc¹ is as defined for Formula I provided hetCyc¹ is a partially unsaturated heterocyclic ring, Cyc¹ is as defined for Formula I provided Cyc¹ is a partially unsaturated C3-C6 cycloalkyl ring, and each R′ is independently H or (1-6C)alkyl, or each R′ together with the atoms to which they are connected form a 5-6 membered ring optionally substituted with 1-4 substituents selected from (C1-C3 alkyl)) using appropriate palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reaction conditions, e.g., Suzuki coupling reaction conditions (for example, a palladium catalyst and optionally a ligand in the presence of an inorganic base, for example, using Pd(PPh₃)₄ and Na₂CO₃ in dioxane at elevated temperatures) to provide a compound of Formula I wherein R is hetAr¹, Ar¹, hetCyc¹ or Cyc¹, wherein hetAr¹ and Ar¹ are as defined for Formula I, hetCyc¹ is as defined for Formula I provided hetCyc¹ is a partially unsaturated heterocyclic ring, Cyc¹ is as defined for Formula I provided Cyc¹ is a partially unsaturated C3-C6 cycloalkyl ring.

Alternatively, compound 5 may be reacted with an organotin compound having the formula R^(b)—Sn(C1-C6 alkyl)₃ wherein R^(b) is hetAr¹, Ar¹, hetCyc¹ or Cyc¹ wherein hetAr¹ and Ar¹ are as defined for Formula I, hetCyc¹ is as defined for Formula I provided hetCyc¹ is a partially unsaturated heterocyclic ring, Cyc¹ is as defined for Formula I provided Cyc¹ is a partially unsaturated C3-C6 cycloalkyl ring, using appropriate palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reaction conditions, e.g., Stille coupling reaction conditions (for example, in the presence of a palladium catalyst and a ligand, such as PdCl₂[P(cy)₃]₂ and optionally in the presence of cesium fluoride), to provide a compound of Formula I wherein R^(b) is hetAr¹, Ar¹, hetCyc¹ or Cyc¹, wherein hetAr¹ and Ar¹ are as defined for Formula I, hetCyc¹ is as defined for Formula I provided hetCyc¹ is a partially unsaturated heterocyclic ring, Cyc¹ is as defined for Formula I provided Cyc¹ is a partially unsaturated C3-C6 cycloalkyl ring.

A compound of Formula I prepared as shown in Scheme 1 may be subjected to additional modification (i.e., reacted or treated with an appropriate reagent) to provide additional compounds of Formula I. For example, a compound of Formula I wherein hetCyc¹ is a saturated heterocyclic ring as defined for Formula I or wherein Cyc¹ is a saturated C3-C6 cycloalkyl ring as defined for Formula I may be prepared by subjecting a compound of Formula I wherein hetCyc¹ is a partially unsaturated heterocyclic ring or Cyc¹ is a partially unsaturated C3-C6 cycloalkyl ring, respectively, as described for Scheme 1, to standard alkene reduction conditions.

Scheme 2 shows a process for preparing compounds of Formula I wherein R¹ is an isoxazolyl ring, R^(b) is hetAr¹, Ar¹, hetCyc¹ or Cyc¹, wherein hetAr¹ and Ar¹ are as defined for Formula I, hetCyc¹ is as defined for Formula I provided hetCyc¹ is a partially unsaturated heterocyclic ring, Cyc¹ is as defined for Formula I provided Cyc¹ is a partially unsaturated C3-C6 cycloalkyl ring, and R² and R^(a) are as defined for Formula I. Compound 6, which is commercially available, may be alkylated with a compound having the formula R²—X, wherein R² is as defined for Formula I and X is a halogen such as iodo, in the presence of a base such as an inorganic base, e.g., potassium carbonate, to provide compound 7. Compound 7 may be reacted with tributyl(vinyl)tin in the presence of a palladium catalyst and copper catalyst, for example Pd(PPh₃)₄ and CuI, in the presence of an amine base, for example triethylamine, to provide compound 8. The alkene group of compound 8 may be oxidized upon treatment with an oxidizing reagent such as osmium tetroxide and 4-methylmorpholine-4-oxide (NMO), followed by treatment of the resulting vicinal diol with sodium periodate to provide compound 9. Compound 9 may be treated with hydroxylamine hydrochloride in the presence of a base such as sodium acetate to provide compound 10. The oxime moiety of compound 10 may be cyclized to an isoxazole ring upon treatment with a compound having the formula HC≡C—R^(a) wherein R^(a) is as defined for Formula I to provide compound 4. A compound of Formula I may be prepared from compound 4 as described in Scheme 1. A compound of Formula I prepared as shown in Scheme 2 may be subjected to additional modification (i.e., reacted or treated with an appropriate reagent) to provide additional compounds of Formula I.

Scheme 3 shows a process for preparing compound of Formula I wherein R¹ and R² are as defined for Formula I. Compound 11, which is commercially available, may be alkylated with a compound having the formula R²—X, wherein R² is as defined for Formula I and X is a halogen such as iodo, in the presence of a base such as an inorganic base, e.g., potassium carbonate, to provide compound 12. Compound 12 may be reacted with a boronic ester compound having the formula R¹—B(OR′)₂ wherein R¹ is as defined for Formula I and each R′ is independently H or (1-6C)alkyl, or each R′ together with the atoms to which they are connected form a 5-6 membered ring optionally substituted with 1-4 substituents selected from (C1-C3 alkyl)) to provide a compound of Formula I using appropriate palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reaction conditions, e.g., Suzuki coupling reaction conditions (for example, a palladium catalyst and optionally a ligand in the presence of an inorganic base, for example, Pd(PPh₃)₄ and Na₂CO₃ in dioxane at elevated temperatures). A compound of Formula I prepared as shown in Scheme 3 may be subjected to additional modification (i.e., reacted or treated with an appropriate reagent) to provide additional compounds of Formula I.

Alternatively, a compound of Formula I wherein R¹ is a 5-membered heteroaryl having 2-3 ring nitrogen atoms, wherein said heteroaryl comprises an NH moiety, may be prepared according to Scheme 4. Said compound may be reacted with a reagent of formula E¹-X, wherein E¹ is C1-C6 alkyl, fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl-, C2-C6 alkenyl, Cyc¹, hetCyc¹, Ar¹, hetAr¹, (C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)—, (C1-C6 alkyl)₂-P(═O)—, and R′R″NC(═O)— wherein R′ is hydrogen and R″ is hydrogen, C1-C alkyl or Cyc²; and X is a leaving atom or leaving group, to provide a compound of Formula I wherein R¹ is a 5-membered heteroaryl having 2-3 ring nitrogen atoms, and said heteroaryl is substituted with C1-C6 alkyl, fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl-, C2-C6 alkenyl, Cyc¹, hetCyc¹, Ar¹, hetAr¹, (C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)—, (C1-C6 alkyl)₂-P(═O)—, and R′R″NC(═O)— wherein R′ is hydrogen and R″ is hydrogen, C1-C alkyl or Cyc².

Scheme 4 shows a process for preparing compounds of Formula I wherein R¹ and R² are as defined for Formula I. The amine moiety of compound 12 may be protected under standard conditions to provide compound 13, wherein Pg is an amino protecting group (e.g., acetyl). Compound 13 may be reacted with a diboronic ester compound having the formula B₂(OR′)₂, wherein R¹ is as defined for Formula I and each R′ is independently H or (C1-C6)alkyl, or each R′ together with the atoms to which they are connected form a 5-6 membered ring optionally substituted with 1-4 substituents independently selected from (C1-C3 alkyl), in the presence of a palladium catalyst, for example [1,1′-bis(diphenylphosphino)ferrocene]dichloropalladium (II), and an inorganic base (e.g., inorganic acetate such as potassium acetate), to provide compound 14. Compound 14 may be reacted with a compound of the formula R¹—X, wherein R¹ is as defined in Formula I and X is a halogen such as bromo, to provide a compound of Formula I using appropriate palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reaction conditions, e.g., Suzuki coupling reaction conditions (for example, a palladium catalyst and optionally a ligand in the presence of an inorganic base, for example, Pd(PPh₃)₄ and K₃PO₄ in dioxane at elevated temperatures), following the removal of the amino protecting group Pg (e.g., in the same step or in a separate step). A compound of Formula I prepared as shown in Scheme 4 may be subjected to additional modification (i.e., reacted or treated with an appropriate reagent) to provide additional compounds of Formula I.

Scheme 5 shows a process for preparing compounds of Formula I wherein R¹ is triazolyl ring and R^(f) is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl-, C2-C6 alkenyl, Cyc¹, hetCyc¹, Ar¹, or hetAr¹. Compound 7, wherein R² is as defined for Formula I, may be reacted with ethynyltrimethylsilane in the presence of a palladium catalyst and copper catalyst, for example PdCl₂(PPh₃)₂ and CuI, in the presence of an amine base, for example triethylamine, to provide compound 15. Compound 15 may be treated with an inorganic base, for example potassium carbonate, to provide compound 16. The alkyne group of compound 16 may be cyclized to form a triazolyl ring upon treatment with a compound having the formula N₃—R^(f) wherein R^(f) is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl-, C2-C6 alkenyl, Cyc¹, hetCyc¹, Ar¹, hetAr¹, or —Si(C1-C6 alkyl)₃, in the presence of a copper catalyst, for example CuI, to provide a compound of Formula I. A compound of Formula I prepared as shown in Scheme 5 may be subjected to additional modification (i.e., reacted or treated with an appropriate reagent) to provide additional compounds of Formula I.

The compounds of formulas 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 12 are useful as intermediates for the preparation of compounds of Formula I and are provided as further aspects of this invention.

Nitrogen atoms in compounds described in any of the above methods may be protected with any convenient nitrogen protecting group, for example as described in Greene & Wuts, eds., “Protecting Groups in Organic Synthesis”, 2^(nd) ed. New York; John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1991. Examples of nitrogen protecting groups include acyl and alkoxycarbonyl groups, such as t-butoxycarbonyl (BOC), phenoxycarbonyl, and [2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxy]methyl (SEM).

Hydroxy groups may be protected with any convenient hydroxy protecting group, for example as described in T. W. Greene, et al., Greene's Protective Groups in Organic Synthesis. New York: Wiley Interscience, 2006. Examples include benzyl, trityl, silyl ethers, and the like.

Accordingly, further provided herein is a process for preparing of a compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof as defined herein which comprises:

(a) for a compound of Formula I wherein R¹ is

wherein R^(a) is cyclopropyl and R is hetAr¹, Ar¹, hetCyc¹ or Cyc¹, wherein hetAr¹ and Ar¹ are as defined for Formula I, hetCyc¹ is as defined for Formula I provided hetCyc¹ is a partially unsaturated heterocyclic ring, Cyc¹ is as defined for Formula I provided Cyc¹ is a partially unsaturated C3-C6 cycloalkyl ring, reacting a corresponding compound having the formula

wherein R^(a) is cyclopropyl, R² is as defined for Formula I, and X is halogen, with a boronic ester having the formula R^(b)—B(OR′)₂ where R^(b) is hetAr¹, Ar¹, hetCyc¹ or Cyc¹ wherein hetAr¹ and Ar¹ are as defined for Formula I, hetCyc¹ is as defined for Formula I provided hetCyc¹ is a partially unsaturated heterocyclic ring, Cyc¹ is as defined for Formula I provided Cyc¹ is a partially unsaturated C3-C6 cycloalkyl ring, and each R′ is independently H or (1-6C)alkyl, or each R′ together with the atoms to which they are connected form a 5-6 membered ring optionally substituted with 1-4 substituents selected from (C1-C3 alkyl) in the presence of a palladium catalyst and optionally a ligand in the presence of an inorganic base; or

(b) for a compound of Formula I wherein R¹ is

wherein R^(a) is cyclopropyl and R^(b) is hetCyc¹ or Cyc¹, wherein hetCyc¹ is as defined for Formula I provided hetCyc¹ is a saturated heterocyclic ring, and Cyc¹ is as defined for Formula I provided Cyc¹ is a saturated C3-C6 cycloalkyl ring, and R² as defined for Formula I, subjecting a compound of Formula I wherein hetCyc¹ is as defined for Formula I provided hetCyc¹ is a partially unsaturated heterocyclic ring or Cyc¹ is as defined for Formula I provided Cyc¹ is a partially unsaturated C3-C6 cycloalkyl ring, respectively, to alkene reduction conditions; or

(c) for a compound of Formula I wherein R¹ is

wherein R^(a) is cyclopropyl R^(b) is hetAr¹, Ar¹, hetCyc¹ or Cyc¹, and R² as defined for Formula I, reacting a corresponding compound having the formula

wherein R^(a) is cyclopropyl, R² is as defined for Formula I, and X is halogen, with a compound having the formula R^(b)—Sn(C1-C6 alkyl)₃ wherein R^(b) is hetAr¹, Ar¹, hetCyc¹ or Cyc¹ as defined for Formula I, in the presence of a palladium catalyst and a ligand and optionally in the presence of cesium fluoride; or

(d) for a compound of Formula I wherein R¹ and R² are as defined for Formula I, reacting a compound having the formula

wherein R² is as defined for Formula I and X is a halogen, with a boronic ester having the formula R¹—B(OR′)₂ wherein R¹ is as defined for Formula I, and each R′ is independently H or (1-6C)alkyl, or each R′ together with the atoms to which they are connected form a 5-6 membered ring optionally substituted with 1-4 substituents selected from (C1-C3 alkyl) in the presence of a palladium catalyst and optionally a ligand in the presence of an inorganic base; or

(e) for a compound of Formula I wherein R¹ and R² are as defined as in Formula I, reacting a compound having the formula

wherein R² is as defined in Formula I, and each R′ is independently H or (C1-C6)alkyl, or each R′ together with the atoms to which they are connected form a 5-6 membered ring optionally substituted with 1-4 substituents independently selected from (C1-C3 alkyl), with a compound of the formula R¹—X, wherein R¹ is as defined in Formula I and X is halogen, in the presence of a palladium catalyst and optionally a ligand in the presence of an inorganic base; or

(f) for a compound of Formula I wherein R¹ is

wherein R² is as defined in Formula I; and R^(f) is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl-, C2-C6 alkenyl, Cyc¹, hetCyc¹, Ar¹, or hetAr¹, reacting a corresponding compound having the formula

wherein R² is as defined in Formula I, with a compound of the formula N₃—R^(f), wherein R^(f) is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl-, C2-C6 alkenyl, Cyc¹, hetCyc¹, Ar¹, hetAr¹, or —Si(C1-C6 alkyl)₃, in the presence of a copper catalyst and in the presence of an inorganic base; and

removing any protecting groups if present and optionally forming a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

The ability of test compounds to act as RET inhibitors may be demonstrated by the assays described in Examples A-C. IC₅₀ values are shown in Table 5.

In some embodiments, the compounds provided herein exhibit potent and selective RET inhibition. For example, the compounds provided herein exhibit nanomolar potency against wild type RET and a RET kinase encoded by a RET gene including an activating mutation or a RET kinase inhibitor resistance mutation, including, for example, the KIF5B-RET fusion, G810R and G810S ATP cleft front mutations, M918T activating mutation, and V804M, V804L, and V804E gatekeeper mutations, with minimal activity against related kinases.

In some embodiments, the compounds provided herein exhibit nanomolar potency against an altered RET fusion protein encoded by a RET gene encoding the RET fusion protein (e.g. any of the RET fusion proteins described herein including, without limitation, CCDC6-RET or KIF5B-RET) which RET gene includes a RET kinase inhibitor resistance mutation (e.g., any of the RET mutations described herein including, without limitation, V804M, V804L, or V804E) such that the altered RET protein is a RET fusion protein that exhibits RET kinase resistance due to the presence of a RET kinase inhibitor resistance amino acid substitution or deletion. Non-limiting examples include CCDC6-RET-V804M and KIF5B-RET-V804M. In some embodiments, the compounds provided herein exhibit nanomolar potency against an altered RET protein encoded by a RET gene that that includes a RET mutation (e.g. any of the RET mutations described herein including, without limitation, C634W or M918T) and that includes a RET kinase inhibitor resistance mutation (e.g., any of the RET kinase inhibitor resistance mutations described herein including, without limitation, V804M, V804L, or V804E) such that the altered RET protein includes a RET substitution caused by the RET mutation (e.g., a RET primary mutation) and the altered RET protein exhibits RET kinase resistance due to the presence of a RET kinase inhibitor resistance amino acid substitution or deletion.

In some embodiments, the compounds of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, selectively target a RET kinase. For example, a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, can selectively target a RET kinase over another kinase or non-kinase target.

In some embodiments, a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, exhibits at least a 30-fold selectivity for a RET kinase over another kinase. For example, a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, exhibits at least a 40-fold selectivity; at least a 50-fold selectivity; at least a 60-fold selectivity; at least a 70-fold selectivity; at least a 80-fold selectivity; at least a 90-fold selectivity; at least 100-fold selectivity; at least 200-fold selectivity; at least 300-fold selectivity; at least 400-fold selectivity; at least 500-fold selectivity; at least 600-fold selectivity; at least 700-fold selectivity; at least 800-fold selectivity; at least 900-fold selectivity; or at least 1000-fold selectivity for a RET kinase over another kinase. In some embodiments, selectivity for a RET kinase over another kinase is measured in a cellular assay (e.g., a cellular assay as provided herein).

In some embodiments, the compounds provided herein can exhibit selectivity for a RET kinase over a KDR kinase (e.g., VEGFR2). In some embodiments, the selectivity for a RET kinase over a KDR kinase is observed without loss of potency for a RET kinase encoded by a RET gene including an activating mutation or a RET kinase inhibitor resistance mutation (e.g., a gatekeeper mutant). In some embodiments, the selectivity over a KDR kinase is at least 10-fold (e.g., at least a 40-fold selectivity; at least a 50-fold selectivity; at least a 60-fold selectivity; at least a 70-fold selectivity; at least a 80-fold selectivity; at least a 90-fold selectivity; at least 100-fold selectivity; at least 150-fold selectivity; at least 200-fold selectivity; at least 250-fold selectivity; at least 300-fold selectivity; at least 350-fold selectivity; or at least 400-fold selectivity) as compared to the inhibition of KIF5B-RET (e.g., the compounds are more potent against KIF5B-RET than KDR). In some embodiments, the selectivity for a RET kinase over a KDR kinase is about 30-fold. In some embodiments, the selectivity for a RET kinase over a KDR kinase is at least 100-fold. In some embodiments, the selectivity for a RET kinase over a KDR kinase is at least 150-fold. In some embodiments, the selectivity for a RET kinase over a KDR kinase is at least 400-fold. Without being bound by any theory, potent KDR kinase inhibition is believed to be a common feature among multikinase inhibitors (MKIs) that target RET and may be the source of the dose-limiting toxicities observed with such compounds.

In some embodiments, inhibition of V804M is similar to that observed for wild-type RET. For example, inhibition of V804M is within about 2-fold (e.g., about 5-fold, about 7-fold, about 10-fold) of inhibition of wild-type RET (e.g., the compounds are similarly potent against wild-type RET and V804M). In some embodiments, selectivity for a wildtype or V804M RET kinase over another kinase is measured in an enzyme assay (e.g., an enzyme assay as provided herein). In some embodiments, the compounds provided herein exhibit selective cytotoxicity to RET-mutant cells.

In some embodiments, inhibition of G810S and/or G810R is similar to that observed for wild-type RET. For example, inhibition of G810S and/or G810R is within about 2-fold (e.g., about 5-fold, about 7-fold, about 10-fold) of inhibition of wild-type RET (e.g., the compounds are similarly potent against wild-type RET and G810S and/or G810R). In some embodiments, selectivity for a wildtype or G810S and/or G810R RET kinase over another kinase is measured in an enzyme assay (e.g., an enzyme assay as provided herein). In some embodiments, the compounds provided herein exhibit selective cytotoxicity to RET-mutant cells.

In some embodiments, the compounds provided herein exhibit brain and/or central nervous system (CNS) penetrance. Such compounds are capable of crossing the blood brain barrier and inhibiting a RET kinase in the brain and/or other CNS structures. In some embodiments, the compounds provided herein are capable of crossing the blood brain barrier in a therapeutically effective amount. For example, treatment of a patient with cancer (e.g., a RET-associated cancer such as a RET-associated brain or CNS cancer) can include administration (e.g., oral administration) of the compound to the patient. In some such embodiments, the compounds provided herein are useful for treating a primary brain tumor or metastatic brain tumor. For example, a RET-associated primary brain tumor or metastatic brain tumor.

In some embodiments, the compounds of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, exhibit one or more of high GI absorption, low clearance, and low potential for drug-drug interactions.

Compounds of Formula I, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates thereof, are useful for treating diseases and disorders which can be treated with a RET kinase inhibitor, such as RET-associated diseases and disorders, e.g., proliferative disorders such as cancers, including hematological cancers and solid tumors (e.g., advanced solid tumors and/or RET-fusion positive solid tumors), and gastrointestinal disorders such as IBS.

As used herein, terms “treat” or “treatment” refer to therapeutic or palliative measures. Beneficial or desired clinical results include, but are not limited to, alleviation, in whole or in part, of symptoms associated with a disease or disorder or condition, diminishment of the extent of disease, stabilized (i.e., not worsening) state of disease, delay or slowing of disease progression, amelioration or palliation of the disease state (e.g., one or more symptoms of the disease), and remission (whether partial or total), whether detectable or undetectable. “Treatment” can also mean prolonging survival as compared to expected survival if not receiving treatment.

As used herein, the terms “subject,” “individual,” or “patient,” are used interchangeably, refers to any animal, including mammals such as mice, rats, other rodents, rabbits, dogs, cats, swine, cattle, sheep, horses, primates, and humans. In some embodiments, the patient is a human. In some embodiments, the subject has experienced and/or exhibited at least one symptom of the disease or disorder to be treated and/or prevented. In some embodiments, the subject has been identified or diagnosed as having a cancer with a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET protein, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same (a RET-associated cancer) (e.g., as determined using a regulatory agency-approved, e.g., FDA-approved, assay or kit). In some embodiments, the subject has a tumor that is positive for a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET protein, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same (e.g., as determined using a regulatory agency-approved assay or kit). The subject can be a subject with a tumor(s) that is positive for a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET protein, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same (e.g., identified as positive using a regulatory agency-approved, e.g., FDA-approved, assay or kit). The subject can be a subject whose tumors have a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET protein, or expression or activity, or a level of the same (e.g., where the tumor is identified as such using a regulatory agency-approved, e.g., FDA-approved, kit or assay). In some embodiments, the subject is suspected of having a RET-associated cancer. In some embodiments, the subject has a clinical record indicating that the subject has a tumor that has a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET protein, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same (and optionally the clinical record indicates that the subject should be treated with any of the compositions provided herein). In some embodiments, the patient is a pediatric patient.

The term “pediatric patient” as used herein refers to a patient under the age of 21 years at the time of diagnosis or treatment. The term “pediatric” can be further be divided into various subpopulations including: neonates (from birth through the first month of life); infants (1 month up to two years of age); children (two years of age up to 12 years of age); and adolescents (12 years of age through 21 years of age (up to, but not including, the twenty-second birthday)). Berhman R E, Kliegman R, Arvin A M, Nelson W E. Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 15th Ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company, 1996; Rudolph A M, et al. Rudolph's Pediatrics, 21st Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002; and Avery M D, First L R. Pediatric Medicine, 2nd Ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1994. In some embodiments, a pediatric patient is from birth through the first 28 days of life, from 29 days of age to less than two years of age, from two years of age to less than 12 years of age, or 12 years of age through 21 years of age (up to, but not including, the twenty-second birthday). In some embodiments, a pediatric patient is from birth through the first 28 days of life, from 29 days of age to less than 1 year of age, from one month of age to less than four months of age, from three months of age to less than seven months of age, from six months of age to less than 1 year of age, from 1 year of age to less than 2 years of age, from 2 years of age to less than 3 years of age, from 2 years of age to less than seven years of age, from 3 years of age to less than 5 years of age, from 5 years of age to less than 10 years of age, from 6 years of age to less than 13 years of age, from 10 years of age to less than 15 years of age, or from 15 years of age to less than 22 years of age.

In certain embodiments, compounds of Formula I, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates thereof, are useful for preventing diseases and disorders as defined herein (for example, autoimmune diseases, inflammatory diseases, and cancer). The term “preventing” as used herein means the prevention of the onset, recurrence or spread, in whole or in part, of the disease or condition as described herein, or a symptom thereof.

The term “RET-associated disease or disorder” as used herein refers to diseases or disorders associated with or having a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase (also called herein RET kinase protein), or the expression or activity or level of any (e.g., one or more) of the same (e.g., any of the types of dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, a RET kinase domain, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same described herein). Non-limiting examples of a RET-associated disease or disorder include, for example, cancer and gastrointestinal disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).

The term “RET-associated cancer” as used herein refers to cancers associated with or having a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase (also called herein RET kinase protein), or expression or activity, or level of any of the same. Non-limiting examples of a RET-associated cancer are described herein.

The phrase “dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same” refers to a genetic mutation (e.g., a chromosomal translocation that results in the expression of a fusion protein including a RET kinase domain and a fusion partner, a mutation in a RET gene that results in the expression of a RET protein that includes a deletion of at least one amino acid as compared to a wildtype RET protein, a mutation in a RET gene that results in the expression of a RET protein with one or more point mutations as compared to a wildtype RET protein, a mutation in a RET gene that results in the expression of a RET protein with at least one inserted amino acid as compared to a wildtype RET protein, a gene duplication that results in an increased level of RET protein in a cell, or a mutation in a regulatory sequence (e.g., a promoter and/or enhancer) that results in an increased level of RET protein in a cell), an alternative spliced version of a RET mRNA that results in a RET protein having a deletion of at least one amino acid in the RET protein as compared to the wild-type RET protein), or increased expression (e.g., increased levels) of a wildtype RET kinase in a mammalian cell due to aberrant cell signaling and/or dysregulated autocrine/paracrine signaling (e.g., as compared to a control non-cancerous cell). As another example, a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET protein, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same, can be a mutation in a RET gene that encodes a RET protein that is constitutively active or has increased activity as compared to a protein encoded by a RET gene that does not include the mutation. For example, a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET protein, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same, can be the result of a gene or chromosome translocation which results in the expression of a fusion protein that contains a first portion of RET that includes a functional kinase domain, and a second portion of a partner protein (i.e., that is not RET). In some examples, dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET protein, or expression or activity or level of any of the same can be a result of a gene translocation of one RET gene with another non-RET gene. Non-limiting examples of fusion proteins are described in Table 1. Non-limiting examples of RET kinase protein point mutations/insertions/deletions are described in Table 2. Additional examples of RET kinase protein mutations (e.g., point mutations) are RET inhibitor resistance mutations. Non-limiting examples of RET inhibitor resistance mutations are described in Tables 3 and 4.

In some embodiments, dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same can be caused by an activating mutation in a RET gene (see, e.g., chromosome translocations that result in the expression of any of the fusion proteins listed in Table 1). In some embodiments, dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same can be caused by a genetic mutation that results in the expression of a RET kinase that has increased resistance to inhibition by a RET kinase inhibitor and/or a multi-kinase inhibitor (MKI), e.g., as compared to a wildtype RET kinase (see, e.g., the amino acid substitutions in Tables 3 and 4). In some embodiments, dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same can be caused by a mutation in a nucleic acid encoding an altered RET protein (e.g., a RET fusion protein or a RET protein having a mutation (e.g., a primary mutation)) that results in the expression of an altered RET protein that has increased resistance to inhibition by a RET kinase inhibitor and/or a multi-kinase inhibitor (MKI), e.g., as compared to a wildtype RET kinase (see, e.g., the amino acid substitutions in Tables 3 and 4). The exemplary RET kinase point mutations, insertions, and deletions shown in Table 2 can be caused by an activating mutation and/or can result in the expression of a RET kinase that has increased resistance to inhibition by a RET kinase inhibitor and/or a multi-kinase inhibitor (MKI).

The term “activating mutation” describes a mutation in a RET kinase gene that results in the expression of a RET kinase that has an increased kinase activity, e.g., as compared to a wildtype RET kinase, e.g., when assayed under identical conditions. For example, an activating mutation can result in the expression of a fusion protein that includes a RET kinase domain and a fusion partner. In another example, an activating mutation can be a mutation in a RET kinase gene that results in the expression of a RET kinase that has one or more (e.g., two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, or ten) amino acid substitutions (e.g., any combination of any of the amino acid substitutions described herein) that has increased kinase activity, e.g., as compared to a wildtype RET kinase, e.g., when assayed under identical conditions. In another example, an activating mutation can be a mutation in a RET kinase gene that results in the expression of a RET kinase that has one or more (e.g., two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, or ten) amino acids deleted, e.g., as compared to a wildtype RET kinase, e.g., when assayed under identical conditions. In another example, an activating mutation can be a mutation in a RET kinase gene that results in the expression of a RET kinase that has at least one (e.g., at least 2, at least 3, at least 4, at least 5, at least 6, at least 7, at least 8, at least 9, at least 10, at least 12, at least 14, at least 16, at least 18, or at least 20) amino acid inserted as compared to a wildtype RET kinase, e.g., the exemplary wildtype RET kinase described herein, e.g., when assayed under identical conditions. Additional examples of activating mutations are known in the art.

The term “wildtype” or “wild-type” describes a nucleic acid (e.g., a RET gene or a RET mRNA, an EGFR gene or a EGFR mRNA, a MET gene or MET mRNA, a MDM2 gene or a MDM2 mRNA) or protein (e.g., a RET protein, an EGFR protein, a MET protein, a MDM2 protein) that is typically found in a subject that does not have a disease or disorder related to the reference nucleic acid or protein.

The term “wildtype RET” or “wild-type RET” describes a RET nucleic acid (e.g., a RET gene or a RET mRNA) or a RET protein that is found in a subject that does not have a RET-associated disease, e.g., a RET-associated cancer (and optionally also does not have an increased risk of developing a RET-associated disease and/or is not suspected of having a RET-associated disease), or is found in a cell or tissue from a subject that does not have a RET-associated disease, e.g., a RET-associated cancer (and optionally also does not have an increased risk of developing a RET-associated disease and/or is not suspected of having a RET-associated disease).

The term “regulatory agency” refers to a country's agency for the approval of the medical use of pharmaceutical agents with the country. For example, a non-limiting example of a regulatory agency is the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

Provided herein is a method of treating cancer (e.g., a RET-associated cancer) in a patient in need of such treatment, the method comprising administering to the patient a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof or a pharmaceutical composition thereof. For example, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a patient in need of such treatment, the method comprising a) detecting a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the patient; and b) administering a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same includes one or more fusion proteins. Non-limiting examples of RET gene fusion proteins are described in Table 1. In some embodiments, the fusion protein is KIF5B-RET. In some embodiments, the dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same includes one or more RET kinase protein point mutations/insertions. Non-limiting examples of RET kinase protein point mutations/insertions/deletions are described in Table 2. In some embodiments, the RET kinase protein point mutations/insertions/deletions are selected from the group consisting of M918T, M918V, C634W, V804L, V804M, G810S, and G810R. In some embodiments, the RET kinase protein point mutations/insertions/deletions occur in a RET fusion protein (e.g., any of the RET gene fusion proteins described in Table 1). In some embodiments, a compound of Formula I is selected from Examples 1-28, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, a compound of Formula 1 is selected from Examples 1-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, a compound of Formula I is selected from the compound of Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof.

In some embodiments of any of the methods or uses described herein, the cancer (e.g., RET-associated cancer) is a hematological cancer. In some embodiments of any of the methods or uses described herein, the cancer (e.g., RET-associated cancer) is a solid tumor (e.g., an advanced solid tumor and/or a RET-fusion positive solid tumor). In some embodiments of any of the methods or uses described herein, the cancer (e.g., RET-associated cancer) is a lung cancer (e.g., small cell lung carcinoma or non-small cell lung carcinoma), thyroid cancer (e.g., papillary thyroid cancer, medullary thyroid cancer (e.g., sporadic medullary thyroid cancer or hereditary medullary thyroid cancer), differentiated thyroid cancer, recurrent thyroid cancer, or refractory differentiated thyroid cancer), thyroid ademona, endocrine gland neoplasms, lung adenocarcinoma, bronchioles lung cell carcinoma, multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A or 2B (MEN2A or MEN2B, respectively), pheochromocytoma, parathyroid hyperplasia, breast cancer, mammary cancer, mammary carcinoma, mammary neoplasm, colorectal cancer (e.g., metastatic colorectal cancer), papillary renal cell carcinoma, ganglioneuromatosis of the gastroenteric mucosa, inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor, or cervical cancer. In some embodiments of any of the methods or uses described herein, the cancer (e.g., RET-associated cancer) is selected from the group of: acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), acute myeloid leukemia (AML), cancer in adolescents, adrenocortical carcinoma, anal cancer, appendix cancer, astrocytoma, atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumor, basal cell carcinoma, bile duct cancer, bladder cancer, bone cancer, brain stem glioma, brain tumor, breast cancer, bronchial tumor, Burkitt lymphoma, carcinoid tumor, unknown primary carcinoma, cardiac tumors, cervical cancer, childhood cancers, chordoma, chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), chronic myeloproliferative neoplasms, neoplasms by site, neoplasms, colon cancer, colorectal cancer, craniopharyngioma, cutaneous T-cell lymphoma, cutaneous angiosarcoma, bile duct cancer, ductal carcinoma in situ, embryonal tumors, endometrial cancer, ependymoma, esophageal cancer, esthesioneuroblastoma, Ewing sarcoma, extracranial germ cell tumor, extragonadal germ cell tumor, extrahepatic bile duct cancer, eye cancer, fallopian tube cancer, fibrous histiocytoma of bone, gallbladder cancer, gastric cancer, gastrointestinal carcinoid tumor, gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST), germ cell tumor, gestational trophoblastic disease, glioma, hairy cell tumor, hairy cell leukemia, head and neck cancer, thoracic neoplasms, head and neck neoplasms, CNS tumor, primary CNS tumor, heart cancer, hepatocellular cancer, histiocytosis, Hodgkin's lymphoma, hypopharyngeal cancer, intraocular melanoma, islet cell tumors, pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors, Kaposi sarcoma, kidney cancer, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, laryngeal cancer, leukemia, lip and oral cavity cancer, liver cancer, lung cancer, lymphoma, macroglobulinemia, malignant fibrous histiocytoma of bone, osteocarcinoma, melanoma, Merkel cell carcinoma, mesothelioma, metastatic squamous neck cancer, midline tract carcinoma, mouth cancer, multiple endocrine neoplasia syndromes, multiple myeloma, mycosis fungoides, myelodysplastic syndromes, myelodysplastic/myeloproliferative neoplasms, neoplasms by site, neoplasms, myelogenous leukemia, myeloid leukemia, multiple myeloma, myeloproliferative neoplasms, nasal cavity and paranasal sinus cancer, nasopharyngeal cancer, neuroblastoma, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, non-small cell lung cancer, lung neoplasm, pulmonary cancer, pulmonary neoplasms, respiratory tract neoplasms, bronchogenic carcinoma, bronchial neoplasms, oral cancer, oral cavity cancer, lip cancer, oropharyngeal cancer, osteosarcoma, ovarian cancer, pancreatic cancer, papillomatosis, paraganglioma, paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer, parathyroid cancer, penile cancer, pharyngeal cancer, pheochromosytoma, pituitary cancer, plasma cell neoplasm, pleuropulmonary blastoma, pregnancy-associated breast cancer, primary central nervous system lymphoma, primary peritoneal cancer, prostate cancer, rectal cancer, colon cancer, colonic neoplasms, renal cell cancer, retinoblastoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, salivary gland cancer, sarcoma, Sezary syndrome, skin cancer, Spitz tumors, small cell lung cancer, small intestine cancer, soft tissue sarcoma, squamous cell carcinoma, squamous neck cancer, stomach cancer, T-cell lymphoma, testicular cancer, throat cancer, thymoma and thymic carcinoma, thyroid cancer, transitional cell cancer of the renal pelvis and ureter, unknown primary carcinoma, urethral cancer, uterine cancer, uterine sarcoma, vaginal cancer, vulvar cancer, and Wilms' tumor.

In some embodiments, a hematological cancer (e.g., hematological cancers that are RET-associated cancers) is selected from the group consisting of leukemias, lymphomas (non-Hodgkin's lymphoma), Hodgkin's disease (also called Hodgkin's lymphoma), and myeloma, for instance, acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL), acute myeloid leukemia (AML), acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL), chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), chronic myeloid leukemia (CML), chronic myelomonocytic leukemia (CMML), chronic neutrophilic leukemia (CNL), acute undifferentiated leukemia (AUL), anaplastic large-cell lymphoma (ALCL), prolymphocytic leukemia (PML), juvenile myelomonocyctic leukemia (JMML), adult T-cell ALL, AML with trilineage myelodysplasia (AML/TMDS), mixed lineage leukemia (MLL), myelodysplastic syndromes (MDSs), myeloproliferative disorders (MPD), and multiple myeloma (MM). Additional examples of hematological cancers include myeloproliferative disorders (MPD) such as polycythemia vera (PV), essential thrombocytopenia (ET) and idiopathic primary myelofibrosis (IMF/IPF/PMF). In some embodiments, the hematological cancer (e.g., the hematological cancer that is a RET-associated cancer) is AML or CMML.

In some embodiments, the cancer (e.g., the RET-associated cancer) is a solid tumor. Examples of solid tumors (e.g., solid tumors that are RET-associated cancers) include, for example, thyroid cancer (e.g., papillary thyroid carcinoma, medullary thyroid carcinoma), lung cancer (e.g., lung adenocarcinoma, small-cell lung carcinoma), pancreatic cancer, pancreatic ductal carcinoma, breast cancer, colon cancer, colorectal cancer, prostate cancer, renal cell carcinoma, head and neck tumors, neuroblastoma, and melanoma. See, for example, Nature Reviews Cancer, 2014, 14, 173-186.

In some embodiments, the cancer is selected from the group consisting of lung cancer, papillary thyroid cancer, medullary thyroid cancer, differentiated thyroid cancer, recurrent thyroid cancer, refractory differentiated thyroid cancer, multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A or 2B (MEN2A or MEN2B, respectively), pheochromocytoma, parathyroid hyperplasia, breast cancer, colorectal cancer, papillary renal cell carcinoma, ganglioneuromatosis of the gastroenteric mucosa, and cervical cancer.

In some embodiments, the patient is a human.

Compounds of Formula I and pharmaceutically acceptable salts and solvates thereof are also useful for treating a RET-associated cancer.

Accordingly, also provided herein is a method for treating a patient diagnosed with or identified as having a RET-associated cancer, e.g., any of the exemplary RET-associated cancers disclosed herein, comprising administering to the patient a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or a pharmaceutical composition thereof as defined herein. In some embodiments, a compound of Formula I is selected from Examples 1-28, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, a compound of Formula I is selected from Examples 1-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, a compound of Formula I is selected from the compound of Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof.

Dysregulation of a RET kinase, a RET gene, or the expression or activity or level of any (e.g., one or more) of the same can contribute to tumorigenesis. For example, a dysregulation of a RET kinase, a RET gene, or expression or activity or level of any of the same can be a translocation, overexpression, activation, amplification, or mutation of a RET kinase, a RET gene, or a RET kinase domain. Translocation can include a gene translocation resulting in the expression of a fusion protein that includes a RET kinase domain and a fusion partner. For example, a fusion protein can have increased kinase activity as compared to a wildtype RET protein. In some embodiments, a mutation in a RET gene can involve mutations in the RET ligand-binding site, extracellular domains, kinase domain, and in regions involved in protein:protein interactions and downstream signaling. In some embodiments, a mutation (e.g., an activating mutation) in a RET gene can result in the expression of a RET kinase having one or more (e.g., two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, or ten) amino acid substitutions (e.g., one or more amino acid substitutions in the kinase domain (e.g., amino acid positions 723 to 1012 in a wildtype RET protein), a gatekeeper amino acid (e.g., amino acid position 804 in a wildtype RET protein), the P-loop (e.g., amino acid positions 730-737 in a wildtype RET protein), the DFG motif (e.g., amino acid positions 892-894 in a wildtype RET protein), ATP cleft solvent front amino acids (e.g., amino acid positions 758, 811, and 892 in a wildtype RET protein), the activation loop (e.g., amino acid positions 891-916 in a wildtype RET protein), the C-helix and loop preceeding the C-helix (e.g., amino acid positions 768-788 in a wildtype RET protein), and/or the ATP binding site (e.g., amino acid positions 730-733, 738, 756, 758, 804, 805, 807, 811, 881, and 892 in a wildtype RET protein). In some embodiments, a mutation can be a gene amplification of a RET gene. In some embodiments, a mutation (e.g., an activating mutation) in a RET gene can result in the expression of a RET kinase or RET receptor that has at least one amino acid (e.g., that lacks at least one amino acid (e.g., at least 2, at least 3, at least 4, at least 5, at least 6, at least 7, at least 8, at least 9, at least 10, at least 12, at least 14, at least 16, at least 18, at least 20, at least 25, at least 30, at least 35, at least 40, at least 45, or at least 50 amino acids) as compared to a wildtype RET protein. In some embodiments, dyregulation of a RET kinase can be increased expression (e.g., increased levels) of a wildtype RET kinase in a mammalian cell due to aberrant cell signaling and/or dysregulated autocrine/paracrine signaling (e.g., as compared to a control non-cancerous cell). In some embodiments, a mutation (e.g., an activating mutation) in a RET gene can result in the expression of a RET kinase or RET receptor that has at least one amino acid (e.g., at least 2, at least 3, at least 4, at least 5, at least 6, at least 7, at least 8, at least 9, at least 10, at least 12, at least 14, at least 16, at least 18, at least 20, at least 25, at least 30, at least 35, at least 40, at least 45, or at least 50 amino acids) inserted as compared to a wildtype RET protein. In some embodiments, dyregulation of a RET kinase can be increased expression (e.g., increased levels) of a wildtype RET kinase in a mammalian cell (e.g., as compared to a control non-cancerous cell), e.g., due to aberrant cell signaling and/or dysregulated autocrine/paracrine signaling. Other dysregulations can include RET mRNA splice variants. In some embodiments, the wildtype RET protein is the exemplary wildtype RET protein described herein.

In some embodiments, the dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, includes overexpression of wild-type RET kinase (e.g., leading to autocrine activation). In some embodiments, the dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase protein, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, includes overexpression, activation, amplification, or mutation in a chromosomal segment comprising the RET gene or a portion thereof, including, for example, the kinase domain portion, or a portion capable of exhibiting kinase activity.

In some embodiments, the dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase protein, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, includes one or more chromosome translocations or inversions resulting in a RET gene fusion. In some embodiments, the dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase protein, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, is a result of genetic translocations in which the expressed protein is a fusion protein containing residues from a non-RET partner protein, and includes a minimum of a functional RET kinase domain.

Non-limiting examples of RET fusion proteins are shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1 Exemplary RET Fusion Partners and Cancers Non-limiting Exemplary RET-Associated Fusion Partner Cancer(s) BCR Chronic Myelomonocytic Leukemia (CMML) CLIP1 Adenocarcinoma KIF5B NSCLC, Ovarian Cancer, Spitzoid Neoplasms; Lung Adenocarcinoma^(3, 4, 14, 28); Adenosquamous Carcinomas¹⁵ CCDC6 (also NSCLC, Colon Cancer, Papillary Thyroid called PTC1, Cancer; Adenocarcinomas; Lung D10S170, or H4) Adenocarcinoma; Metastatic Colorectal Cancer⁵; Adenosquamous Carcinomas¹⁵, Breast Cancer³⁰ PTC1ex9 (a Metastatic papillary thyroid cancer² novel CCDC6 rearrangement) NCOA4 (also Papillary Thyroid Cancer²¹, NSCLC, Colon called PTC3, Cancer, Salivary Gland Cancer, Metastatic ELE1, and RFG) Colorectal Cancer⁵; Lung Adenocarcinoma¹⁵; Adenosquamous Carcinomas¹⁵ Diffuse Sclerosing Variant of Papillary Thyroid Cancer¹⁶, Breast Cancer³⁰, Acinic Cell Carcinoma³², Mammary Analog Secretory Carcinoma³³ TRIM33 (also NSCLC, Papillary Thyroid Cancer, Lung called PTC7, Adenocarcinoma⁴⁶, Various²² RFG7, and TIF1G) ERC1 (also Papillary Thyroid Cancer, Breast Cancer called ELKS and RAB61P2) FGFR1OP CMML, Primary Myelofibrosis with secondary Acute Myeloid Leukemia MBD1(also Papillary Thyroid Cancer known as PCM1) PRKAR1A (also Papillary Thyroid Cancer called PTC2) TRIM24 (also Papillary Thyroid Cancer called PTC6) KTN1 (also Papillary Thyroid Cancer called PTC8) GOLGA5 (also Papillary Thyroid Cancer, Spitzoid called PTC5) Neoplasms HOOK3 Papillary Thyroid Cancer KIAA1468 Papillary Thyroid Cancer, Lung Adenocarcinoma^(8, 12) RFG9 (also Papillary Thyroid Cancer called PTC9) TRIM27 (also Papillary Thyroid Cancer called RFP) AKAP13 Papillary Thyroid Cancer FKBP15 Papillary Thyroid Cancer, Acute Myeloid Leukemia⁴⁶ SPECC1L Papillary Thyroid Cancer; Thyroid Gland Carcinoma TBL1XR1 Papillary Thyroid Cancer; Thyroid Gland Carcinoma CEP55 Diffuse Gastric Cancer⁷ CUX1 Lung Adenocarcinoma ACBD5 Papillary Thyroid Carcinoma MYH13 Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma¹ Uncharacterized Inflammatory Myofibroblastic Tumor⁶ PIBF1 Bronchiolus Lung Cell Carcinoma⁹ KIAA1217 (also Papillary Thyroid Cancer^(10, 13) called SKT) Lung Adenocarcinoma¹⁴ NSCLC¹⁴ MPRIP NSCLC¹¹ HRH4-RET Thyroid Cancer and/or Paillary Thyroid Carcinoma¹⁷ Ria-RET Thyroid Cancer and/or Papillary Thyroid Carcinoma¹⁷ RFG8 Papillary Thyroid Carcinoma¹⁸ FOXP4 Lung Adenocarcinoma¹⁹ MYH10 Infantile Myofibromatosis²⁰ HTIF1 Various²² H4L Various²² PTC4 (a novel Papillary Thyroid Cancer²³ NCO4/ELE1 rearrangement) FRMD4A NSCLC²⁴ SQSTM1 Papillary Thyroid Carcinoma²⁵ AFAP1L2 Papillary Thyroid Carcinoma²⁵ AFAP1 NSCLC³¹ PPFIBP2 Papillary Thyroid Carcinoma²⁵ EML4 NSCLC PARD3 NSCLC²⁷ RASGEF1A Breast Cancer³⁰ TEL (also In vitro³⁴, secretory carcinoma⁵¹ called ETV6) RUFY1 Colorectal Cancer³⁵ OLFM4 Small-Bowel Cancer³⁶ UEVLD Papillary Thyroid Carcinoma²⁹ DLG5 Non-Anaplastic Thyroid (NAT) Cancer³⁷ RRBP1 Colon Cancer³⁸ ANK3 Papillary Thyroid Carcinoma³⁹ PICALM NSCLC⁴⁰ MYO5C NSCLC⁴¹ EPHA5 NSCLC⁴⁰ RUFY2 Lung Cancer⁴² KIF13A Lung Adenocarcinoma⁴³, NSCLC⁴⁵ TNIP1 Colorectal Cancer⁴⁴ SNRNP70 Colorectal Cancer⁴⁴ MRLN Thyroid Carcinoma⁴⁶ LMNA Spitzoid Melanoma⁴⁷ RUFY3 Papillary Thyroid Carcinoma TFG MYO5A Pigmented spindle cell nevus (PSCN) of Reed⁴⁸ ADD3 Lung adenocarcinoma⁴⁹ JMJD1C NSCLC⁵⁰ RBPMS DOCK1 TAF3 NCOA1 NSCLC⁵² ZNF485 Breast cancer⁵³ VCL Lipofibromatosis⁵⁴ TSSK4 Lung cancer⁵⁵ SORBS1 Lung cancer⁵⁵ SIRT1 Lung cancer⁵⁵ PTPRK Lung cancer⁵⁵ ADD3-AS1 Lung cancer⁵⁵ PRKG1 Lung cancer⁵⁵ IL2RA Lung cancer⁵⁵ CCNYL2 Lung cancer⁵⁵ CCDC186 Lung cancer⁵⁵ ANNS1B Lung cancer⁵⁵ ¹Grubbs et al., J. 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Annals of Oncology, 28(2), 292-297. doi: 10.1093/annonc/mdw559, 2016. ⁴²Zheng et al. Nature Medicine, 20(12), 1479-1484. doi: 10.1038/nm.3729, 2014. ⁴³Zhang et al. Lung Cancer, 118, 27-29. doi: 10.1016/j.lungcan.2017.08.019, 2018. ⁴⁴Morano et al. Molecular Cancer Therapeutics, (January 2018) Vol. 17, No. 1, Supp. Supplement 1. Abstract Number: B049. Meeting Info: AACR-NCI-EORTC International Conference: Molecular Targets and Cancer Therapeutics 2017. ⁴⁵Wang et al. Journal of Thoracic Oncology, (November 2017) Vol. 12, No. 11, Supp. Supplement 2, pp. S2105. Abstract Number: P2.02-018. Meeting Info: 18th World Conference on Lung Cancer of the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, IASLC 2017. Yokohama, Japan. 15 Oct. 2017-18 Oct. 2017. ⁴⁶Gao et al. Cell Reports, 23(1), 227-238. doi: 10.1016/j.celrep.2018.03.050, 2018. ⁴⁷U.S. application Pub No. 2016/0010068. ⁴⁸VandenBoom, et al. Am. J. Surg. Pathol. 42(8): 1042-1051, 2018. doi: 10.1097/PAS.0000000000001074 ⁴⁹Cao, et al. 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In some embodiments, the dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, includes one or more deletions (e.g., deletion of an amino acid at position 4), insertions, or point mutation(s) in a RET kinase. In some embodiments, the dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, includes a deletion of one or more residues from the RET kinase, resulting in constitutive activity of the RET kinase domain.

In some embodiments, the dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, includes at least one point mutation in a RET gene that results in the production of a RET kinase that has one or more amino acid substitutions, insertions, or deletions as compared to the wild-type RET kinase (see, for example, the point mutations listed in Table 2). In some embodiments, dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, includes at least one point mutation in a RET gene that results in the production of a RET kinase that has one or more of the amino acid substitutions, insertions, or deletions in Table 2. In some embodiments, dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, includes at least one point mutation in a RET gene that results in the production of a RET kinase that has a D898-E901 deletion. In some embodiments, dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, includes at least one point mutation in a RET gene that results in the production of a RET kinase that has a mutation in an extracellular cysteine (e.g., C618, C620, or C630) (e.g., C618Y, C620R, or C630R).

TABLE 2 RET Kinase Protein Amino Acid Substitutions/Insertions/Deletions^(A) Amino acid position 2 Amino acid position 3 Amino acid position 4 Amino acid position 5 Amino acid position 6 Amino acid position 7 Amino acid position 8 Amino acid position 11 Amino acid position 12 Amino acid position 13 Amino acid position 20 Amino acid position 32 (e.g., S32L) Amino acid position 34 (e.g., D34S) Amino acid position 40 (e.g., L40P) Amino acid position 45 (e.g., A45A)³⁹ Amino acid position 56 (e.g., L56M)³⁰ Amino acid position 64 (e.g., P64L) Amino acid position 67 (e.g., R67H) Amino acid position 77 (e.g., R77C)⁶⁵ Amino acid position 114 (e.g., R114H) Amino acid position 136 (e.g., glutamic acid to stop codon) Amino acid position 145 (e.g., V145G) Amino acid position 177 (e.g., R177L)⁶⁷ Amino acid position 180 (e.g., arginine to stop codon) Amino acid position 200 Amino acid position 270 (e.g., P270L)⁶⁵ Amino acid position 278 (e.g., T278N)⁵⁷ Amino acid position 292 (e.g., V292M) Amino acid position 294 Amino acid position 321 (e.g., G321R) Amino acid position 330 (e.g., R330Q) Amino acid position 338 (e.g., T338I) Amino acid position 360 (e.g., R360W) Amino acid position 365 (e.g., S365L⁸⁵) Amino acid position 373 (e.g., alanine to frameshift) Δ Amino acid positions 378-385 with insertion of one amino acid (e.g., D378-G385 > E) Amino acid position 393 (e.g., F393L) Amino acid position 423 (e.g., G423R)²⁷ Amino acid position 428 (e.g., E428K)⁵⁷ Amino acid position 432 (e.g., A432A³⁹) Amino acid position 446 (e.g., G446R)²⁸ Δ Amino acid positions 505-506 (6-Base Pair In-Frame Germline Deletion in Exon 7)³ Amino acid position 510 (e.g., A510V) Amino acid position 511 (e.g., E511K) Amino acid position 513 (e.g., G513D)⁷* Amino acid position 515 (e.g., C515S, C515W⁴) Amino acid position 525 (e.g., R525W)⁷* Amino acid position 531 (e.g., C531R, or 9 base pair duplication²) Amino acid position 532 (e.g., duplication)² Amino acid position 533 (e.g., G533C, G533S) Amino acid position 534 (e.g., L534L)⁶ Amino acid position 550 (e.g., G550E) Amino acid position 591 (e.g., V591I) Amino acid position 593 (e.g., G593E) Amino acid position 595 (e.g., E595D and E595A)¹⁸ Amino acid position 600 (e.g., R600Q) Amino acid position 602 (e.g., I602V)⁶ Amino acid position 603 (e.g., K603Q, K603E²) Amino acid position 606 (e.g., Y606C) Amino acid position 609 (e.g., C609Y, C609S, C609G, C609R, C609F, C609W, C609C³², C609V⁸³) Amino acid position 611 (e.g., C611R, C611S, C611G, C611Y, C611F, C611W) Amino acid position 616 (e.g., E616Q)²³ Δ Amino acid position 616⁶⁴ Amino acid position 618 (e.g., C618S, C618Y, C618R, C618G, C618F, C618W, stop⁵⁶) Amino acid position 619 (e.g., F619F) Amino acid position 620 (e.g., C620S, C620W, C620R, C620G, C620L, C620Y, C620F, C620A⁴⁷) Δ Amino acid positions 612-620⁷⁴ Amino acid position 622 (e.g., P622L)⁶⁸ Amino acid position 623 (e.g., E623K) Amino acid position 624 (e.g., D624N) Amino acid position 628 (e.g., P628N)⁷³ Amino acid position 629 (e.g., L629P⁸⁶) Amino acid positions 629-631 (e.g., L629- D631delinsH)⁸⁰ Amino acid position 630 (e.g., C630A, C630R, C630S, C630Y, C630F, C630W) Δ Amino acid position 630⁵⁶ Amino acid position 631 (e.g., D631N, D631Y, D631A, D631G, D631V, D631E) Δ Amino acid position 631⁶⁹ Amino acid positions 631-633 > V (i.e., residues 631- 633 are replaced with a single valine residue) Amino acid positions 631-633 > A (i.e., residues 631- 633 are replaced with a single alanine residue) Amino acid positions 631-633 > E (i.e., residues 631- 633 are replaced with a single glutamic acid residue) Δ Amino acid positions 631-633 (e.g., D631-L633) Δ Amino acid positions 631-634 (e.g., D631-C634) Amino acid position 632 (e.g., E632K, E632G^(5,11), E632V⁶², 632 to frameshift⁴⁷) Amino acid positions 632-633 > V (i.e., residues 632 and 633 are replaced with a single valine residue)⁷⁴ Δ Amino acid positions 632-633 (e.g., a 6-Base Pair In-Frame Germline Deletion in Exon 11⁹)(e.g., E632-L633 del) Amino acid positions 632-639 > HR (i.e., residues 632- 639 are replaced with two residues, histidine and arginine) Amino acid position 633 (e.g., L633R⁶², 9 base pair duplication², L633delinsLCR⁷¹) Amino acid position 634 (e.g., C634W, C634Y, C634S, C634R, C634F, C634G, C634L, C634A, or C634T, a 9 base pair deletion⁶², a 9 base pair duplication⁵⁶, or a 12 base pair duplication²) (e.g., causing MTC) Δ Amino acid position 634⁵⁶ Amino acid position 632/634 (e.g., V292M/C634R)⁸² Amino acid position 630/634 (e.g., C630C/C634R)⁸² Amino acid position 632/633/634 (E632V/L633R/634 9 base pair deletion)⁶² Amino acid position 635 (e.g., R635G or an insertion ELCR²) Amino acid positions 631-635 > G (i.e., residues 6312 and 635 are replaced with a single glycine residue)⁸⁶ Amino acid position 636 (e.g., T636P², T636M⁴) Amino acid position 637 (e.g., V637R⁸⁶) Amino acid positions 636-637 (e.g., T636- V637insCRT)⁸⁰ Amino acid position 638 (e.g., isoleucine to frameshift⁴⁷) Amino acid position 640 (e.g., A640G) Amino acid position 634/640 (e.g., C634R/A640G)⁵⁶ Amino acid position 641 (e.g., A641S, A641T⁸) Amino acid position 634/641 (e.g., C634S/A641S)⁵⁶ Amino acid position 639/641 (e.g., A639G/A641R)⁵⁶ Amino acid position 644 (e.g., T644M)⁵⁹ Amino acid position 648 (e.g., V648I) Amino acid positions 634/648 (e.g., C634R/V648I)⁷⁷ Amino acid position 649 (e.g., S649L)²⁸ Amino acid position 650 (e.g., V650M)⁸¹ Amino acid position 661 (e.g., H661H)⁶ Amino acid position 664 (e.g., A664D) Amino acid position 665 (e.g., H665Q) Amino acid position 666 (e.g., K666E, K666M, K666N, K666R) Amino acid position 675 (T675T, silent nucleotide change)¹⁸ Amino acid position 679 (e.g., P679P)⁶ Amino acid position 680 (e.g., A680T, alanine to frameshift)⁶ Amino acid position 686 (e.g., S686N) Amino acid position 689 (e.g., S689T)¹⁸ Amino acid position 691 (e.g., G691S) Amino acid position 694 (e.g., R694Q) Amino acid position 700 (e.g., M700L) Amino acid position 706 (e.g., V706M, V706A) Amino acid position 713 splice variant (e.g., E713K (e.g., a splice variant))⁶ Amino acid position 714 (e.g., D714Y)⁵⁷ Amino acid position 727 (e.g., G727E)⁶ Amino acid position 732 (e.g., E732K)²⁰ Amino acid position 734 (e.g., E734K)⁴⁸ Amino acid position 736 (e.g., G736R)⁶ Amino acid position 738 (e.g., V738V)⁶ Amino acid position 742 (e.g., T742M)⁵¹ Amino acid position 748 (e.g., G748C) Amino acid position 749 (e.g., R749T³⁶) Amino acid position 750 (e.g., A750P, A750G⁶) Amino acid position 752 (e.g., Y752Y)⁶ Amino acid position 751 (e.g., G751G)⁶ Amino acid position 762 (e.g., E762Q³⁶) Amino acid position 765 (e.g., S765P, S765F) Amino acid position 766 (e.g., P766S, P766M⁶) Amino acid position 768 (e.g., E768Q, E768D, E768N⁴⁶, E768G⁷²) Amino acid position 769 (e.g., L769L⁶) Amino acid position 770 (e.g., R770Q) Amino acid position 771 (e.g., D771N) Amino acid position 777 (e.g., N777S) Amino acid position 778 (e.g., V778I) Amino acid position 781 (e.g., Q781R) Amino acid position 788 (e.g., I788I³², I788N⁷⁸) Amino acid position 790 (e.g., L790F) Amino acid position 768/790 (e.g., E768D/L790T)⁴⁰ Amino acid position 791 (e.g., Y791F, Y791N²⁴) Amino acid position 634/791 (e.g., C634Y/Y791F)⁵⁵ Amino acid position 790/791 (e.g., L790F/Y791F)⁵⁵ Amino acid position 802 Amino acid position 804 (e.g., V804L^(15,16), V804M^(15,16), V804E¹²) (e.g., causing MTC) Amino acid position 778/804⁵⁰ (e.g., V778I/V804M⁵⁴) Amino acid position 781/804 (e.g., Q781R/V804M)⁴¹ Amino acid position 805 (e.g., E805K) Amino acid position 804/805 (e.g., V804M/E805K)¹⁷ Amino acid position 806 (e.g., Y806F, Y806S¹², Y806G, Y806C^(2,12,14), Y806E¹⁴, Y806H¹², Y806N^(12,) Y806Y³²) Amino acid position 804/806 (e.g., V804M/Y806C)³⁸ Amino acid position 810 (e.g., G810R¹², G810S¹², G810A¹³, G810C, G810V, and G810D) Amino acid position 817 (e.g., R817C)⁸¹ Amino acid position 818 (e.g., E818K) Amino acid position 819 (e.g., S819I) Amino acid position 820 (e.g., R820L)⁵⁷ Amino acid position 823 (e.g., G823E) Amino acid position 826 (e.g., Y826M, Y826S)¹⁰ Amino acid position 828 (e.g., G828R)⁵⁷ Amino acid position 833 (e.g., R833C) Amino acid position 836 (e.g., S836S)¹⁹ Amino acid position 841 (e.g., P841L, P841P) Amino acid position 843 (e.g., E843D) Amino acid position 844 (e.g., R844W, R844Q, R844L) Amino acid position 804/844 (e.g., V804M/R844L)⁷⁶ Amino acid position 845 (e.g., A845A)⁶³ Amino acid position 848 (e.g., M848T) Amino acid position 852 (e.g., I852M) Amino acid position 853 (e.g., S853T)⁵⁷ Amino acid position 865 (e.g., L865V)¹² Amino acid position 866 (e.g., A866W)³³ Amino acid position 867 (e.g., E867K)³⁷ Amino acid position 870 (e.g., L870F)¹² Amino acid position 873 (e.g., R873W, R873Q⁴²) Amino acid position 876 (e.g., A876V) Amino acid position 881 (e.g., L881V) Amino acid position 882 Amino acid position 883 (e.g., A883F, A883S, A883T, A883Y⁵³, A883V) Amino acid position 884 (e.g., E884K, E884V³⁵) Amino acid position 886 (e.g., R886W, R886L⁸¹) Amino acid position 891 (e.g., S891A, S891S³², S891L³⁵) Amino acid position 893 (e.g., F893L)⁴² Amino acid position 894 (e.g., G894S)⁴³ Amino acid position 897 (e.g., R897Q, R897P) Amino acid position 898 (e.g., D898V, D898Y⁶⁶) Δ Amino acid position 898 Δ Amino acid positions 898-902⁵⁸ Δ Amino acid positions 899-902⁴⁷ Δ Amino acid positions 898-901⁴⁷ (e.g., del D898- E901) Δ Amino acid positions 632-633/Δ Amino acid positions 898-901⁴⁷ Amino acid position 900 (e.g., Y900F)²² Amino acid position 901 (e.g., E901K) Amino acid position 904 (e.g., S904F, S904S, S904C², S904T⁵⁷) Amino acid position 691/904 (e.g., G691S/S904S)⁴⁹ Amino acid position 804/904 (e.g., V804M/S904C)³⁸ Amino acid position 905 (e.g., Y905F)²² Amino acid position 907 (e.g., K907E, K907M) Amino acid position 908 (e.g., R908K) Amino acid position 911 (e.g., G911D, G911G (e.g., a splice variant)⁶) Amino acid position 912 (e.g., R912P, R912Q) Amino acid position 918 (e.g., M918T², M918V, M918L⁶) (e.g., causing MTC) Amino acid position 591/918 (e.g., V591I/M918T)⁶¹ Amino acid position 620/918 (e.g., C620F/M918T)⁴⁷ Amino acid position 891/918 (e.g., S891A/M918T)⁴⁷ Δ Amino acid position 898-901/M918T⁴⁷ Amino acid position 919 (e.g., A919V, A919P⁵²) Amino acid position 768/919⁵⁴ Amino acid position 921 (e.g., E921K, E921D) Amino acid position 911/918/921 (e.g., G911E/M918T/E921K)⁶¹ Amino acid position 922 (e.g., S922P, S922Y) Amino acid position 924 (e.g., F924S⁶, F924L⁸¹) Amino acid position 930 (e.g., T930M) Amino acid position 961 (e.g., F961L) Amino acid position 972 (e.g., R972G) Amino acid position 973 (e.g., P973T)⁵⁷ Amino acid position 977 (e.g., S977R)³⁷ Amino acid position 981 (e.g., Y981F)²² Amino acid position 982 (e.g., R982C)⁷⁰ Amino acid position 634/691/982 (e.g., C634R/G691S/R982C)⁴⁵ Amino acid position 292/67/982 (e.g., V292M/ R67H/R982C)⁷⁵ Amino acid position 634/292/67/982 (e.g., C634R/ V292M/R67H/R982C)⁷⁵ Amino acid position 1002 (e.g., S1002N⁸⁵) Amino acid position 1009 (e.g., M1009V) Amino acid position 1015 (e.g., Y1015F)²² Amino acid position 1017 (e.g., D1017N) Amino acid position 1024 (e.g., S1024F)⁷⁹ Amino acid position 1041 (e.g., V1041G) Amino acid position 1047 (e.g., P1047S)⁶⁵ Amino acid position 1051 (e.g., A1051T)⁵⁷ Δ Amino acid position 1059⁵⁷ Amino acid position 1064 (e.g., M1064T) Amino acid position 1096 (e.g., Y1096F)²¹ Amino acid position 1105 (e.g., A1105V)⁵⁷ Amino acid position 1109 (e.g., M1109T)³⁴ RET + 3¹ (In-Frame Deletion in Exons 6 and 11)²⁵ (3bp In-Frame Deletion in Exon 15)²⁶ Nucleotide position 2136 + 2 (e.g., 2136 + 2T > G)²⁹ (del632-636 ins6)³¹ Amino acid positions 791 and 852 (e.g., Y791F + I852M)³¹ Amino acid positions 634 and 852 (e.g., C634R + I852M)³¹ c.1893_1895del⁴⁴ ^(A)The RET kinase mutations shown may be activating mutations and/or confer increased resistance of the RET kinase to a RET kinase inhibitor and/or a multi-kinase inhibitor (MKI), e.g., as compared to a wildtype RET kinase. ¹U.S. patent application Pub. No. 2014/0272951. ²Krampitz et al., Cancer 120: 1920-1931, 2014. ³Latteyer, et al., J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 101(3): 1016-22, 2016. ⁴Silva, et al. Endocrine 49.2: 366-372, 2015. ⁵Scollo, et al., Endocr. J. 63(1): 87-91, 2016. ⁶Jovanovic, et al., Prilozi 36(1): 93-107, 2015. ⁷Qi, et al., Oncotarget. 6(32): 33993-4003, 2015. *R525W and G513D appear to act in combination with S891A to enchance oncogenic activity. ⁸Kim, et al. ACTA ENDOCRINOLOGICA-BUCHAREST 11.2, 189-194, 2015. ⁹Cecchirini, et al. Oncogene, 14, 2609-2612, 1997. ¹⁰Karrasch, et al. Eur. Thyroid J., 5(1): 73-7, 2016. ¹¹Scollo et al., Endocr. J. 63: 87-91, 2016. ¹²PCT patent application Pub. No. WO 2016/127074. ¹³Huang et al., Mol. Cancer Ther., 2016 Aug. 5. pii: molcanther.0258.2016. [Epub ahead of print]. ¹⁴Carlomagno, et al., Endocr. Rel. Cancer 16(1): 233-41, 2009. ¹⁵Yoon et al., J. Med. Chem. 59(1): 358-73, 2016. ¹⁶U.S. Pat. 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In some embodiments, the dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, includes a splice variation in a RET mRNA which results in an expressed protein that is an alternatively spliced variant of RET having at least one residue deleted (as compared to the wild-type RET kinase) resulting in a constitutive activity of a RET kinase domain.

A “RET kinase inhibitor” as defined herein includes any compound exhibiting RET inhibition activity. In some embodiments, a RET kinase inhibitor is selective for a RET kinase. Exemplary RET kinase inhibitors can exhibit inhibition activity (IC₅₀) against a RET kinase of less than about 1000 nM, less than about 500 nM, less than about 200 nM, less than about 100 nM, less than about 50 nM, less than about 25 nM, less than about 10 nM, or less than about 1 nM as measured in an assay as described herein. In some embodiments, a RET kinase inhibitor can exhibit inhibition activity (IC₅₀) against a RET kinase of less than about 25 nM, less than about 10 nM, less than about 5 nM, or less than about 1 nM as measured in an assay as provided herein.

As used herein, a “first RET kinase inhibitor” or “first RET inhibitor” is a RET kinase inhibitor as defined herein, but which does not include a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as defined herein. As used herein, a “second RET kinase inhibitor” or a “second RET inhibitor” is a RET kinase inhibitor as defined herein, but which does not include a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as defined herein. When both a first and a second RET inhibitor are present in a method provided herein, the first and second RET kinase inhibitor are different.

In some embodiments, the dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, includes at least one point mutation in a RET gene that results in the production of a RET kinase that has one or more amino acid substitutions or insertions or deletions in a RET gene that results in the production of a RET kinase that has one or more amino acids inserted or removed, as compared to the wild-type RET kinase. In some cases, the resulting RET kinase is more resistant to inhibition of its phosphotransferase activity by one or more first RET kinase inhibitor(s), as compared to a wildtype RET kinase or a RET kinase not including the same mutation. Such mutations, optionally, do not decrease the sensitivity of the cancer cell or tumor having the RET kinase to treatment with a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof (e.g., as compared to a cancer cell or a tumor that does not include the particular RET inhibitor resistance mutation). In such embodiments, a RET inhibitor resistance mutation can result in a RET kinase that has one or more of an increased V_(max), a decreased K_(m) for ATP, and an increased K_(D) for a first RET kinase inhibitor, when in the presence of a first RET kinase inhibitor, as compared to a wildtype RET kinase or a RET kinase not having the same mutation in the presence of the same first RET kinase inhibitor.

In other embodiments, the dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, includes at least one point mutation in a RET gene that results in the production of a RET kinase that has one or more amino acid substitutions as compared to the wild-type RET kinase, and which has increased resistance to a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as compared to a wildtype RET kinase or a RET kinase not including the same mutation. In such embodiments, a RET inhibitor resistance mutation can result in a RET kinase that has one or more of an increased V_(max), a decreased K_(m), and a decreased K_(D) in the presence of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as compared to a wildtype RET kinase or a RET kinase not having the same mutation in the presence of the same compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof.

Examples of RET inhibitor resistance mutations can, e.g., include point mutations, insertions, or deletions in and near the ATP binding site in the tertiary structure of RET kinase (e.g., amino acid positions 730-733, 738, 756, 758, 804, 805, 807, 810, 811, 881, and 892 of a wildtype RET kinase, e.g., the exemplary wildtype RET kinase described herein), including but not limited to a gatekeeper residue (e.g., amino acid position 804 in a wildtype RET kinase), P-loop residues (e.g., amino acid positions 730-737 in a wildtype RET kinase), residues in or near the DFG motif (e.g., amino acid positions 888-898 in a wildtype RET kinase), and ATP cleft solvent front amino acid residues (e.g., amino acid positions 758, 811, and 892 of a wildtype RET kinase). Additional examples of these types of mutations include changes in residues that may affect enzyme activity and/or drug binding including but are not limited to residues in the activation loop (e.g., amino acid positions 891-916 of a wildtype RET kinase), residues near or interacting with the activation loop, residues contributing to active or inactive enzyme conformations, changes including mutations, deletions, and insertions in the loop proceeding the C-helix and in the C-helix (e.g., amino acid positions 768-788 in a wildtype RET protein). In some embodiments, the wildtype RET protein is the exemplary wildtype RET kinase described herein. Specific residues or residue regions that may be changed (and are RET inhibitor resistance mutations) include but are not limited to those listed in Table 3, with numbering based on the human wildtype RET protein sequence (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 1). As can be appreciated by those skilled in the art, an amino acid position in a reference protein sequence that corresponds to a specific amino acid position in SEQ ID NO: 1 can be determined by aligning the reference protein sequence with SEQ ID NO: 1 (e.g., using a software program, such as ClustalW2). Additional examples of RET inhibitor resistance mutation positions are shown in Table 4. Changes to these residues may include single or multiple amino acid changes, insertions within or flanking the sequences, and deletions within or flanking the sequences. See also J. Kooistra, G. K. Kanev, O. P. J. Van Linden, R. Leurs, I. J. P. De Esch, and C. De Graaf, “KLIFS: A structural kinase-ligand interaction database,” Nucleic Acids Res., vol. 44, no. D1, pp. D365-D371, 2016, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety herein.

Exemplary Sequence of Mature Human RET Protein (SEQ ID NO: 1) MAKATSGAAG LRLLLLLLLP LLGKVALGLY FSRDAYWEKL  YVDQAAGTPL LYVHALRDAP EEVPSFRLGQ HLYGTYRTRL  HENNWICIQE DTGLLYLNRS LDHSSWEKLS VRNRGFPLLT  VYLKVFLSPT SLREGECQWP GCARVYFSFF NTSFPACSSL KPRELCFPET RPSFRIRENR PPGTFHQFRL LPVQFLCPNI  SVAYRLLEGE GLPFRCAPDS LEVSTRWALD REQREKYELV AVCTVHAGAR EEVVMVPFPV TVYDEDDSAP TFPAGVDTAS AVVEFKRKED TVVATLRVFD ADVVPASGEL VRRYTSTLLP  GDTWAQQTFR VEHWPNETSV QANGSFVRAT VHDYRLVLNR  NLSISENRTM QLAVLVNDSD FQGPGAGVLL LHFNVSVLPV  SLHLPSTYSL SVSRRARRFA QIGKVCVENC QAFSGINVQY KLHSSGANCS TLGVVTSAED TSGILFVNDT KALRRPKCAE  LHYMVVATDQ QTSRQAQAQL LVTVEGSYVA EEAGCPLSCA  VSKRRLECEE CGGLGSPTGR CEWRQGDGKG ITRNFSTCSP STKTCPDGHC DVVETQDINI CPQDCLRGSI VGGHEPGEPR  GIKAGYGTCN CFPEEEKCFC EPEDIQDPLC DELCRTVIAA  AVLFSFIVSV LLSAFCIHCY HKFAHKPPIS SAEMTFRRPA  QAFPVSYSSS GARRPSLDSM ENQVSVDAFK ILEDPKWEFP RKNLVLGKTL GEGEFGKVVK ATAFHLKGRA GYTTVAVKML  KENASPSELR DLLSEFNVLK QVNHPHVIKL YGACSQDGPL  LLIVEYAKYG SLRGFLRESR KVGPGYLGSG GSRNSSSLDH PDERALTMGD LISFAWQISQ GMQYLAEMKL VHRDLAARNI  LVAEGRKMKI SDFGLSRDVY EEDSYVKRSQ GRIPVKWMAI  ESLFDHIYTT QSDVWSFGVL LWEIVTLGGN PYPGIPPERL  FNLLKTGHRM ERPDNCSEEM YRLMLQCWKQ EPDKRPVFAD ISKDLEKMMV KRRDYLDLAA STPSDSLIYD DGLSEEETPL  VDCNNAPLPR ALPSTWIENK LYGMSDPNWP GESPVPLTRA DGTNTGFPRY PNDSVYANWM LSPSAAKLMD TFDS

In some embodiments, a RET inhibitor resistance mutation can include a dysregulation of a MET gene, a MET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same.

In some embodiments, compounds of Formula I and pharmaceutically acceptable salts and solvates thereof are useful in treating patients that develop cancers with RET inhibitor resistance mutations (e.g., that result in an increased resistance to a first RET inhibitor, e.g., a substitution at amino acid position 804, e.g., V804M, V804L, or V804E, a substitution at amino acid position 810, e.g., G810S, G810R, G810C, G810A, G810V, and G810D, and/or one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations listed in Tables 3 and 4) by either dosing in combination or as a subsequent or additional (e.g., follow-up) therapy to existing drug treatments (e.g., other RET kinase inhibitors; e.g., first and/or second RET kinase inhibitors). Exemplary first and second RET kinase inhibitors are described herein. In some embodiments, a first or second RET kinase inhibitor can be selected from the group consisting of cabozantinib, vandetanib, alectinib, apatinib, sitravatinib, sorafenib, lenvatinib, ponatinib, dovitinib, sunitinib, foretinib, DS-5010, LOXO-292, BLU667, and BLU6864.

In some embodiments, compounds of Formula I, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts and solvates thereof are useful for treating a cancer that has been identified as having one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations (that result in an increased resistance to a first or second RET inhibitor, e.g., a substitution at amino acid position 804, e.g., V804M, V804L, or V804E, or e.g., a substitution at amino acid position 810, e.g., G810S, G810R, G810C, G810A, G810V, and G810D). In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations occur in a nucleic acid sequence encoding a RET fusion protein (e.g. any of the RET gene fusion proteins described in Table 1) resulting in a RET fusion protein that exhibits RET kinase inhibitor resistance. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations occurs in a nucleic acid sequence encoding a mutant RET protein (e.g. a mutant RET protein having any of the mutations described in Table 2) resulting in a mutant RET protein that exhibits RET kinase resistance. Non-limiting examples of RET inhibitor resistance mutations are listed in Tables 3 and 4.

TABLE 3 RET Inhibitor Resistance Mutations Exemplary RET Resistance Mutations Amino acid position 634 (e.g., C634W)¹⁰ Amino acid position 732 (e.g., E732K)⁷ Amino acid position 788 (e.g., I788N)⁸ Amino acid position 790 (e.g., L790F)⁹ Amino acid position 804 (e.g., V804M^(1,2), V804L^(1,2), V804E⁶) Amino acid position 778/804¹³ Amino acid position 804/805 (e.g., V804M/E805K)³ Amino acid position 806 (e.g., Y806C^(4,6), Y806E⁴, Y806S⁶, Y806H⁶, Y806N⁶) Amino acid position 804/806 (e.g., V804M/Y806C)¹¹ Amino acid position 810 (e.g., G810A⁵, G810R⁶, G810S⁶, G810C, G810V, and G810D) Amino acid position 865 (e.g., L865V⁶) Amino acid position 870 (e.g., L870F⁶) Amino acid position 891 (e.g., S891A)¹⁰ Amino acid position 904 (e.g., S904F)¹² Amino acid position 804/904 (e.g., V804M/S904C)¹¹ Amino acid position 918 (e.g.. M918T)¹⁰ ¹Yoon et al., J. Med. Chem. 59(1): 358-73, 2016. ²U.S. Pat. No. 8,629,135. ³Cranston, et al., Cancer Res. 66(20): 10179-87, 2006. ⁴Carlomagno, et al., Endocr. Rel. Cancer 16(1): 233-41, 2009. ⁵Huang et al., Mol. Cancer Ther., 2016 Aug. 5. pii: molcanther.0258.2016. [Epub ahead of print]. ⁶PCT patent application Pub. No. WO 2016/127074. ⁷Mamedova et al., Summer Undergraduate Research Programs (SURP) Student Abstracts, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, 2016. ⁸Plenker et al., Sci. Transl. Med., 9(394), doi: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aah6144, 2017. ⁹Kraft et al, Cancer Research, 2017, Vol. 77, No. 13, Supp. Supplement 1. Abstract Number: 4882; American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2017. Washington, DC, United States. 1 Apr. 2017-5 Apr. 2017. ¹⁰U.S. patent application Pub. No. 2018/0022732. ¹¹Roskoski and Sadeghi-Nejad, Pharmacol. Res., 128, 1-17. doi: 10.1016/j.phrs.2017.12.021, 2018. ¹²Nakaoku, et al. Nat Commun, 9(1), 625. doi: 10.1038/s41467-018-02994-7, 2018. ¹³Roy et al. Oncologist, 18(10): 1093-1100. doi: 10.1634/theoncologist.2013-0053, 2013

TABLE 4 Additional Exemplary Amino Acid Positions of RET Inhibitor Resistance Mutations RET Amino Acid and Exemplary Position Mutation Mechanistic Resistance Rationale L730 P Steric hindrance and/or active conformational effect G731 V Steric hindrance and/or active conformational effect E732 K Steric hindrance and/or active conformational effect G733 V Steric hindrance and/or active conformational effect E734 K Steric hindrance and/or active conformational effect L760 M Active conformational effect K761 E Active conformational effect E762 K Active conformational effect N763 D Active conformational effect A764 V Active conformational effect S765 N Active conformational effect P766 A Active conformational effect S767 C Active conformational effect E768 K Active conformational effect L779 M Steric hindrance and/or active conformational effect I788 M Steric hindrance and/or active conformational effect M868 R Steric hindrance and/or active conformational effect K869 E Steric hindrance and/or active conformational effect L870 Q Steric hindrance and/or active conformational effect V871 M Steric hindrance and/or active conformational effect H872 R Steric hindrance and/or active conformational effect R873 P Steric hindrance and/or active conformational effect D874 Y Steric hindrance and/or active conformational effect L881 R Steric hindrance and/or active conformational effect L895 M Active conformational effect S896 N Active conformational effect R897 C Active conformational effect D898 Y Active conformational effect V899 G Active conformational effect Y900 D Active conformational effect E901 K Active conformational effect E902 K Active conformational effect D903 Y Active conformational effect S904 C Active conformational effect Y905 D Active conformational effect V906 M Active conformational effect K907 E Active conformational effect R908 P Active conformational effect S909 C Active conformational effect Q910 R Active conformational effect G911 C Active conformational effect R912 P Active conformational effect

The oncogenic role of RET was first described in papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) (Grieco et al., Cell, 1990, 60, 557-63), which arises from follicular thyroid cells and is the most common thyroid malignancy. Approximately 203% of PTC harbor somatic chromosomal rearrangements (translocations or inversions) linking the promoter and the 5′ portions of constitutively expressed, unrelated genes to the RET tyrosine kinase domain (Greco et al., Q. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging, 2009, 53, 440-54), therefore driving its ectopic expression in thyroid cells. Fusion proteins generated by such rearrangements are termed “RET/PTC” proteins. For example, RET/PTC 1 is a fusion between CCDD6 and RET that is commonly found in papillary thyroid carcinomas. Similarly, both RET/PTC3 and RET/PTC4 are fusions of ELE1 and RET that are commonly found in papillary thyroid carcinomas, although the fusion events resulting RET/PTC3 and RET/PTC4 lead to different proteins with different molecular weights (see e.g., Fugazzola et al., Oncogene, 13(5):1093-7, 1996). Some RET fusions associated with PTC are not referred to as “RET/PTC”, but instead are referred to as the the fusion protein inself. For example, fusion between RET and both ELKS and PCM1 are found in PTCs, but the fusion proteins are referred to as ELKS-RET and PCM1-RET (see e.g., Romei and Elisei, Front. Endocrinol. (Lausanne), 3:54, doi: 10.3389/fendo.2012.00054, 2012). The role of RET-PTC rearrangements in the pathogenesis of PTC has been confirmed in transgenic mice (Santoro et al., Oncogene, 1996, 12, 1821-6). To date, a variety of fusion partners have been identified, from PTC and other cancer types, all providing a protein/protein interaction domain that induces ligand-independent RET dimerization and constitutive kinase activity (see, e.g., Table 1). Recently, a 10.6 Mb pericentric inversion in chromosome 10, where RET gene maps, has been identified in about 2% of lung adenocarcinoma patients, generating different variants of the chimeric gene KIF5B-RET (Ju et al., Genome Res., 2012, 22, 436-45; Kohno et al., 2012, Nature Med., 18, 375-7; Takeuchi et al., Nature Med., 2012, 18, 378-81; Lipson et al., 2012, Nature Med., 18, 382-4). The fusion transcripts are highly expressed and all the resulting chimeric proteins contain the N-terminal portion of the coiled-coil region of KIF5B, which mediates homodimerization, and the entire RET kinase domain. None of RET positive patients harbor other known oncogenic alterations (such as EGFR or K-Ras mutation, ALK translocation), supporting the possibility that KIF5B-RET fusion could be a driver mutation of lung adenocarcinoma. The oncogenic potential of KIF5B-RET has been confirmed by transfecting the fusion gene into cultured cell lines: similarly to what has been observed with RET-PTC fusion proteins, KIF5B-RET is constitutively phosphorylated and induces NIH-3T3 transformation and IL-3 independent growth of BA-F3 cells. However, other RET fusion proteins have been identified in lung adenocarcinoma patients, such as the CCDC6-RET fusion protein, which has been found to play a key role in the proliferation of the human lung adenocarcinoma cell line LC-2/ad (Journal of Thoracic Oncology, 2012, 7(12):1872-1876). RET inhibitors have been shown to be useful in treating lung cancers involving RET rearrangements (Drilon, A. E. et al. J Clin Oncol 33, 2015 (suppl; abstr 8007)). RET fusion proteins have also been identified in patients having colorectal cancer (Song Eun-Kee, et al. International Journal of Cancer, 2015, 136: 1967-1975).

Besides rearrangements of the RET sequence, gain of function point mutations of RET proto-oncogene are also driving oncogenic events, as shown in medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC), which arises from parafollicular calcitonin-producing cells (de Groot, et al., Endocrine Rev., 2006, 27, 535-60; Wells and Santoro, Clin. Cancer Res., 2009, 15, 7119-7122). Around 25% of MTC are associated with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 (MEN2), a group of inherited cancer syndromes affecting neuroendocrine organs caused by germline activating point mutations of RET. In MEN2 subtypes (MEN2A, MEN2B and Familial MTC/FMTC) RET gene mutations have a strong phenotype-genotype correlation defining different MTC aggressiveness and clinical manifestations of the disease. In MEN2A syndrome mutations involve one of the six cysteine residues (mainly C634) located in the cysteine-rich extracellular region, leading to ligand-independent homodimerization and constitutive RET activation. Patients develop MTC at a young age (onset at 5-25 years) and may also develop pheochromocytoma (50%) and hyperparathyroidism. MEN2B is mainly caused by M918T mutation, which is located in the kinase domain. This mutation constitutively activates RET in its monomeric state and alters substrate recognition by the kinase. MEN2B syndrome is characterized by an early onset (<1 year) and very aggressive form of MTC, pheochromocytoma (50% of patients) and ganglioneuromas. In FMTC the only disease manifestation is MTC, usually occurring at an adult age. Many different mutations have been detected, spanning the entire RET gene. The remaining 75% of MTC cases are sporadic and about 50% of them harbor RET somatic mutations: the most frequent mutation is M918T that, as in MEN2B, is associated with the most aggressive phenotype. Somatic point mutations of RET have also been described in other tumors such as colorectal cancer (Wood et al., Science, 2007, 318, 1108-13) and small cell lung carcinoma (Jpn. J. Cancer Res., 1995, 86, 1127-30). In some embodiments, the MTC is RET-fusion positive MTC.

RET signaling components have been found to be expressed in primary breast tumors and to functionally interact with estrogen receptor-cc pathway in breast tumor cell lines (Boulay et al., Cancer Res. 2008, 68, 3743-51; Plaza-Menacho et al., Oncogene, 2010, 29, 4648-57), while RET expression and activation by GDNF family ligands could play an important role in perineural invasion by different types of cancer cells (Ito et al., Surgery, 2005, 138, 788-94; Gil et al., J. Natl. Cancer Inst., 2010, 102, 107-18; Iwahashi et al., Cancer, 2002, 94, 167-74).

RET is also expressed in 30-70% of invasive breast cancers, with expression being relatively more frequent in estrogen receptor-positive tumors (Plaza-Menacho, I., et al., Oncogene, 2010, 29, 4648-4657; Esseghir, S., et al., Cancer Res., 2007, 67, 11732-11741; Morandi, A., et al., Cancer Res., 2013, 73, 3783-3795; Gattelli, A., EMBO Mol. Med., 2013, 5, 1335-1350).

The identification of RET rearrangements has been reported in a subset of (patient-derived xenograft) PDX established from colorectal cancer. Although the frequency of such events in colorectal cancer patients remains to be defined, these data suggest a role of RET as a target in this indication (Gozgit et al., AACR Annual Meeting 2014). Studies have shown that the RET promoter is frequently methylated in colorectal cancers, and heterozygous missense mutations, which are predicted to reduce RET expression, are identified in 5-10% of cases, which suggests that RET might have some features of a tumor suppressor in sporadic colon cancers (Luo, Y., et al., Oncogene, 2013, 32, 2037-2047; Sjoblom, T., et al., Science, 2006, 268-274; Cancer Genome Atlas Network, Nature, 2012, 487, 330-337).

An increasing number of tumor types are now being shown to express substantial levels of wild-type RET kinase that could have implications for tumor progression and spread. RET is expressed in 50-65% of pancreatic ductal carcinomas, and expression is more frequent in metastatic and higher grade tumors (Ito, Y, et al., Surgery, 2005, 138, 788-794; Zeng, Q., et al., J. Int. Med. Res. 2008, 36, 656-664).

In neoplasms of hematopoietic lineages, RET is expressed in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) with monocytic differentiation, as well as in CMML (Gattei, V. et al., Blood, 1997, 89, 2925-2937; Gattei, V., et al., Ann. Hematol, 1998, 77, 207-210; Camos, M., Cancer Res. 2006, 66, 6947-6954). Recent studies have identified rare chromosomal rearrangements that involve RET in patients with chronic myelomonocytic leukemia (CMML). CMML is frequently associated with rearrangements of several tyrosine kinases, which result in the expression of chimeric cytosolic oncoproteins that lead to activation of RAS pathways (Kohlmann, A., et al., J. Clin. Oncol. 2010, 28, 2858-2865). In the case of RET, gene fusions that link RET with BCR (BCR-RET) or with fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 oncogene partner (FGFR1OP-RET) were transforming in early hematopoietic progenitor cells and could shift maturation of these cells towards monocytic paths, probably through the initiation of RET-mediated RAS signaling (Ballerini, P., et al., Leukemia, 2012, 26, 2384-2389).

RET expression has also been shown to occur in several other tumor types, including prostate cancer, small-cell lung carcinoma, melanoma, renal cell carcinoma, and head and neck tumors (Narita, N., et al., Oncogene, 2009, 28, 3058-3068; Mulligan, L. M., et al., Genes Chromosomes Cancer, 1998, 21, 326-332; Flavin, R., et al., Urol. Oncol., 2012, 30, 900-905; Dawson, D. M., J Natl Cancer Inst, 1998, 90, 519-523).

In neuroblastoma, RET expression and activation by GFLs has roles in tumor cell differentiation, potentially collaborating with other neurotrophic factor receptors to down regulate N-Myc, the expression of which is a marker of poor prognosis (Hofstra, R. M., W., et al., Hum. Genet. 1996, 97, 362-364; Petersen, S. and Bogenmann, E., Oncogene, 2004, 23, 213-225; Brodeur, G. M., Nature Ref Cancer, 2003, 3, 203-216).

Multitargeted inhibitors which cross react with RET are known (Borrello, M. G., et al., Expert Opin. Ther. Targets, 2013, 17(4), 403-419; International Patent Application Nos. WO 2014/141187, WO 2014/184069, and WO 2015/079251). Such multitargeted inhibitors (or multikinase inhibitors or MKIs) can also be associated with development of RET inhibitor resistance mutations. See, for example, Q. Huang et al., “Preclinical Modeling of KIF5B-RET Fusion Lung Adenocarcinoma.,” Mol. Cancer Ther., no. 18, pp. 2521-2529, 2016; Yasuyuki Kaneta et al., Abstract B173: Preclinical characterization and antitumor efficacy of DS-5010, a highly potent and selective RET inhibitor, Mol Cancer Ther Jan. 1, 2018 (17) (1 Supplement) B173; DOI:10.1158/1535-7163.TARG-17-B173, both of which are incorporated by reference in their entirety herein.

Accordingly, provided herein are methods for treating a patient diagnosed with (or identified as having) a cancer that include administering to the patient a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. Also provided herein are methods for treating a patient identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer that include administering to the patient a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof or a pharmaceutical composition thereof. In some embodiments, the patient that has been identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer through the use of a regulatory agency-approved, e.g., FDA-approved test or assay for identifying dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, in a patient or a biopsy sample from the patient or by performing any of the non-limiting examples of assays described herein. In some embodiments, the test or assay is provided as a kit. In some embodiments, the cancer is a RET-associated cancer. For example, the RET-associated cancer can be a cancer that includes one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations. In some embodiments, a compound of Formula I is selected from Examples 1-28, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, a compound of Formula I is selected from Examples 1-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, a compound of Formula I is selected from the compound of Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof.

Also provided are methods for treating cancer in a patient in need thereof, the method comprising: (a) detecting a RET-associated cancer in the patient; and (b) administering to the patient a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof or a pharmaceutical composition thereof. Some embodiments of these methods further include administering to the subject another anticancer agent (e.g., a second RET inhibitor, a second compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or an immunotherapy). In some embodiments, the subject was previously treated with a first RET inhibitor or previously treated with another anticancer treatment, e.g., at least partial resection of the tumor or radiation therapy. In some embodiments, the patient is determined to have a RET-associated cancer through the use of a regulatory agency-approved, e.g., FDA-approved test or assay for identifying dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, in a patient or a biopsy sample from the patient or by performing any of the non-limiting examples of assays described herein. In some embodiments, the test or assay is provided as a kit. In some embodiments, the cancer is a RET-associated cancer. For example, the RET-associated cancer can be a cancer that includes one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations.

Also provided are methods of treating a patient that include performing an assay on a sample obtained from the patient to determine whether the patient has a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, and administering (e.g., specifically or selectively administering) a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof or a pharmaceutical composition thereof to the patient determined to have a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same. Some embodiments of these methods further include administering to the subject another anticancer agent (e.g., a second RET inhibitor, a second compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or immunotherapy). In some embodiments of these methods, the subject was previously treated with a first RET inhibitor or previously treated with another anticancer treatment, e.g., at least partial resection of a tumor or radiation therapy. In some embodiments, the patient is a patient suspected of having a RET-associated cancer, a patient presenting with one or more symptoms of a RET-associated cancer, or a patient having an elevated risk of developing a RET-associated cancer. In some embodiments, the assay utilizes next generation sequencing, pyrosequencing, immunohistochemistry, or break apart FISH analysis. In some embodiments, the assay is a regulatory agency-approved assay, e.g., FDA-approved kit. In some embodiments, the assay is a liquid biopsy. Additional, non-limiting assays that may be used in these methods are described herein. Additional assays are also known in the art. In some embodiments, the dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same includes one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations.

Also provided is a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof or a pharmaceutical composition thereof for use in treating a RET-associated cancer in a patient identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer through a step of performing an assay (e.g., an in vitro assay) on a sample obtained from the patient to determine whether the patient has a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, where the presence of a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, identifies that the patient has a RET-associated cancer. Also provided is the use of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof for the manufacture of a medicament for treating a RET-associated cancer in a patient identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer through a step of performing an assay on a sample obtained from the patient to determine whether the patient has a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same where the presence of dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, identifies that the patient has a RET-associated cancer. Some embodiments of any of the methods or uses described herein further include recording in the patient's clinical record (e.g., a computer readable medium) that the patient is determined to have a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, through the performance of the assay, should be administered a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof or a pharmaceutical composition thereof. In some embodiments, the assay utilizes next generation sequencing, pyrosequencing, immunohistochemistry, or break apart FISH analysis. In some embodiments, the assay is a regulatory agency-approved assay, e.g., FDA-approved kit. In some embodiments, the assay is a liquid biopsy. In some embodiments, the dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same includes one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations.

Also provided is a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, for use in the treatment of a cancer in a patient in need thereof or a patient identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer. Also provided is the use of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof for the manufacture of a medicament for treating a cancer in a patient identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer. In some embodiments, the cancer is a RET-associated cancer, for example, a RET-associated cancer having one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations. In some embodiments, a patient is identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer through the use of a regulatory agency-approved, e.g., FDA-approved, kit for identifying dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, in a patient or a biopsy sample from the patient. As provided herein, a RET-associated cancer includes those described herein and known in the art.

Also provided herein are methods for treating a pediatric patient diagnosed with (or identified as having) a cancer that include administering to the pediatric patient a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. Also provided herein are methods for treating a pediatric patient identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer that include administering to the pediatric patient a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof or a pharmaceutical composition thereof. In some embodiments, the pediatric patient that has been identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer through the use of a regulatory agency-approved, e.g., FDA-approved test or assay for identifying dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, in a pediatric patient or a biopsy sample from the pediatric patient or by performing any of the non-limiting examples of assays described herein. In some embodiments, the test or assay is provided as a kit. In some embodiments, the cancer is a RET-associated cancer. For example, the RET-associated cancer can be a cancer that includes one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations.

Also provided are methods for treating cancer in a pediatric patient in need thereof, the method comprising: (a) determining if the cancer in the pediatric patient is a RET-associated cancer; and (b) if the cancer is determined to be a RET-associated cancer, administering to the pediatric patient a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof or a pharmaceutical composition thereof. Some embodiments of these methods further include administering to the subject another anticancer agent (e.g., a second RET inhibitor, a second compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or immunotherapy). In some embodiments, the subject was previously treated with a first RET inhibitor or previously treated with another anticancer treatment, e.g., resection of the tumor or radiation therapy. In some embodiments, the pediatric patient is determined to have a RET-associated cancer through the use of a regulatory agency-approved, e.g., FDA-approved test or assay for identifying dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, in a pediatric patient or a biopsy sample from the pediatric patient or by performing any of the non-limiting examples of assays described herein. In some embodiments, the test or assay is provided as a kit. In some embodiments, the cancer is a RET-associated cancer. For example, the RET-associated cancer can be a cancer that includes one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations.

Also provided are methods of treating a pediatric patient that include performing an assay on a sample obtained from the pediatric patient to determine whether the pediatric patient has a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, and administering (e.g., specifically or selectively administering) a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof or a pharmaceutical composition thereof to the pediatric patient determined to have a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same. Some embodiments of these methods further include administering to the subject another anticancer agent (e.g., a second RET inhibitor, a second compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or immunotherapy). In some embodiments of these methods, the subject was previously treated with a first RET inhibitor or previously treated with another anticancer treatment, e.g., resection of a tumor or radiation therapy. In some embodiments, the pediatric patient is a pediatric patient suspected of having a RET-associated cancer, a pediatric patient presenting with one or more symptoms of a RET-associated cancer, or a pediatric patient having an elevated risk of developing a RET-associated cancer. In some embodiments, the assay utilizes next generation sequencing, pyrosequencing, immunohistochemistry, or break apart FISH analysis. In some embodiments, the assay is a regulatory agency-approved assay, e.g., FDA-approved kit. Additional, non-limiting assays that may be used in these methods are described herein. Additional assays are also known in the art. In some embodiments, the dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same includes one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations.

Also provided is a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof or a pharmaceutical composition thereof for use in treating a RET-associated cancer in a pediatric patient identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer through a step of performing an assay (e.g., an in vitro assay) on a sample obtained from the pediatric patient to determine whether the pediatric patient has a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, where the presence of a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, identifies that the pediatric patient has a RET-associated cancer. Also provided is the use of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof for the manufacture of a medicament for treating a RET-associated cancer in a pediatric patient identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer through a step of performing an assay on a sample obtained from the pediatric patient to determine whether the pediatric patient has a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same where the presence of dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, identifies that the pediatric patient has a RET-associated cancer. Some embodiments of any of the methods or uses described herein further include recording in the pediatric patient's clinical record (e.g., a computer readable medium) that the pediatric patient is determined to have a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, through the performance of the assay, should be administered a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the assay utilizes next generation sequencing, pyrosequencing, immunohistochemistry, or break apart FISH analysis. In some embodiments, the assay is a regulatory agency-approved assay, e.g., FDA-approved kit. In some embodiments, the dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same includes one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations.

Also provided is a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof for use in the treatment of a cancer in a pediatric patient in need thereof or a pediatric patient identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer. Also provided is the use of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof for the manufacture of a medicament for treating a cancer in a pediatric patient identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer. In some embodiments, the cancer is a RET-associated cancer, for example, a RET-associated cancer having one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations. In some embodiments, a pediatric patient is identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer through the use of a regulatory agency-approved, e.g., FDA-approved, kit for identifying dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, in a pediatric patient or a biopsy sample from the pediatric patient. As provided herein, a RET-associated cancer includes those described herein and known in the art.

In some embodiments of any of the methods or uses described herein, the patient has been identified or diagnosed as having a cancer with a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same. In some embodiments of any of the methods or uses described herein, the patient has a tumor that is positive for a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same. In some embodiments of any of the methods or uses described herein, the patient can be a patient with a tumor(s) that is positive for a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same. In some embodiments of any of the methods or uses described herein, the patient can be a patient whose tumors have a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same. In some embodiments of any of the methods or uses described herein, the patient is suspected of having a RET-associated cancer (e.g., a cancer having one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations). In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a patient in need of such treatment, the method comprising a) detecting a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the patient; and b) administering a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same includes one or more fusion proteins. Non-limiting examples of RET gene fusion proteins are described in Table 1. In some embodiments, the fusion protein is KIF5B-RET. In some embodiments, the dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same includes one or more RET kinase protein point mutations/insertions/deletions. Non-limiting examples of RET kinase protein point mutations/insertions/deletions are described in Table 2. In some embodiments, the RET kinase protein point mutations/insertions/deletions are selected from the group consisting of M918T, M918V, C634W, V804L, V804M, G810S, and G810R. In some embodiments, the dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same includes one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations. Non-limiting examples of RET inhibitor resistance mutations are described in Tables 3 and 4. In some embodiments, the RET inhibitor resistance mutation is V804M. In some embodiments, the RET inhibitor resistance mutation is G810S. In some embodiments, the RET inhibitor resistance mutation is G810R. In some embodiments, the cancer with a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same is determined using a regulatory agency-approved, e.g., FDA-approved, assay or kit. In some embodiments, the tumor that is positive for a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same is a tumor positive for one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations. In some embodiments, the tumor with a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same is determined using a regulatory agency-approved, e.g., FDA-approved, assay or kit.

In some embodiments of any of the methods or uses described herein, the patient has a clinical record indicating that the patient has a tumor that has a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same (e.g., a tumor having one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations). In some embodiments, the clinical record indicates that the patient should be treated with one or more of the compounds of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates thereof or compositions provided herein. In some embodiments, the cancer with a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same is a cancer having one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations. In some embodiments, the cancer with a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same is determined using a regulatory agency-approved, e.g., FDA-approved, assay or kit. In some embodiments, the tumor that is positive for a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same is a tumor positive for one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations. In some embodiments, the tumor with a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same is determined using a regulatory agency-approved, e.g., FDA-approved, assay or kit.

Also provided are methods of treating a patient that include administering a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof to a patient having a clinical record that indicates that the patient has a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same. Also provided is the use of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof for the manufacture of a medicament for treating a RET-associated cancer in a patient having a clinical record that indicates that the patient has a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same. Some embodiments of these methods and uses can further include: a step of performing an assay (e.g., an in vitro assay) on a sample obtained from the patient to determine whether the patient has a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, and recording the information in a patient's clinical file (e.g., a computer readable medium) that the patient has been identified to have a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same. In some embodiments, the assay is an in vitro assay. For example, an assay that utilizes next generation sequencing, immunohistochemistry, or break apart FISH analysis. In some embodiments, the assay is a regulatory agency-approved, e.g., FDA-approved, kit. In some embodiments, the assay is a liquid biopsy. In some embodiments, the dysregulation of a RET gene, RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same includes one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations.

Also provided herein is a method of treating a subject. In some embodiments, the method includes performing an assay on a sample obtained from the subject to determine whether the subject has a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET protein, or expression or level of any of the same. In some such embodiments, the method also includes administering to a subject determined to have a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET protein, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the method includes determining that a subject has a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET protein, or expression or level of any of the same via an assay performed on a sample obtained from the subject. In such embodiments, the method also includes administering to a subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the dysregulation in a RET gene, a RET kinase protein, or expression or activity of the same is a gene or chromosome translocation that results in the expression of a RET fusion protein (e.g., any of the RET fusion proteins described herein). In some embodiments, the RET fusion can be selected from a KIF5B-RET fusion and a CCDC6-RET fusion. In some embodiments, the dysregulation in a RET gene, a RET kinase protein, or expression or activity or level of any of the same is one or more point mutation in the RET gene (e.g., any of the one or more of the RET point mutations described herein). The one or more point mutations in a RET gene can result, e.g., in the translation of a RET protein having one or more of the following amino acid substitutions: M918T, M918V, C634W, V804L, V804M, G810S, and G810R. In some embodiments, the dysregulation in a RET gene, a RET kinase protein, or expression or activity or level of any of the same is one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations (e.g., any combination of the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations described herein). Some embodiments of these methods further include administering to the subject another anticancer agent (e.g., a second RET inhibitor, a second compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or immunotherapy).

In some embodiments, the compounds provided herein exhibit brain and/or central nervous system (CNS) penetrance. Such compounds are capable of crossing the blood brain barrier and inhibiting a RET kinase in the brain and/or other CNS structures. In some embodiments, the compounds provided herein are capable of crossing the blood brain barrier in a therapeutically effective amount. For example, treatment of a patient with cancer (e.g., a RET-associated cancer such as a RET-associated brain or CNS cancer) can include administration (e.g., oral administration) of the compound to the patient. In some such embodiments, the compounds provided herein are useful for treating a primary brain tumor or metastatic brain tumor. For example, the compounds can be used in the treatment of one or more of gliomas such as glioblastoma (also known as glioblastoma multiforme), astrocytomas, oligodendrogliomas, ependymomas, and mixed gliomas, meningiomas, medulloblastomas, gangliogliomas, schwannomas (neurilemmomas), and craniopharyngiomas (see, for example, the tumors listed in Louis, D. N. et al. Acta Neuropathol 131(6), 803-820 (June 2016)). In some embodiments, the brain tumor is a primary brain tumor. In some embodiments, the patient has previously been treated with another anticancer agent, e.g., another RET inhibitor (e.g., a compound that is not a compound of General Formula I) or a multi-kinase inhibitor. In some embodiments, the brain tumor is a metastatic brain tumor. In some embodiments, the patient has previously been treated with another anticancer agent, e.g., another RET inhibitor (e.g., a compound that is not a compound of General Formula I) or a multi-kinase inhibitor.

Also provided are methods (e.g., in vitro methods) of selecting a treatment for a patient identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer. Some embodiments can further include administering the selected treatment to the patient identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer. For example, the selected treatment can include administration of a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. Some embodiments can further include a step of performing an assay on a sample obtained from the patient to determine whether the patient has a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, and identifying and diagnosing a patient determined to have a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, as having a RET-associated cancer. In some embodiments, the cancer is a RET-associated cancer having one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations. In some embodiments, the patient has been identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer through the use of a regulatory agency-approved, e.g., FDA-approved, kit for identifying dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, in a patient or a biopsy sample from the patient. In some embodiments, the RET-associated cancers is a cancer described herein or known in the art. In some embodiments, the assay is an in vitro assay. For example, an assay that utilizes the next generation sequencing, immunohistochemistry, or break apart FISH analysis. In some embodiments, the assay is a regulatory agency-approved, e.g., FDA-approved, kit. In some embodiments, the assay is a liquid biopsy.

Also provided herein are methods of selecting a treatment for a patient, wherein the methods include a step of performing an assay on a sample obtained from the patient to determine whether the patient has a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same (e.g., one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations), and identifying or diagnosing a patient determined to have a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, as having a RET-associated cancer. Some embodiments further include administering the selected treatment to the patient identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer. For example, the selected treatment can include administration of a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof to the patient identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer. In some embodiments, the assay is an in vitro assay. For example, an assay that utilizes the next generation sequencing, immunohistochemistry, or break apart FISH analysis. In some embodiments, the assay is a regulatory agency-approved, e.g., FDA-approved, kit. In some embodiments, the assay is a liquid biopsy.

Also provided are methods of selecting a patient for treatment, wherein the methods include selecting, identifying, or diagnosing a patient having a RET-associated cancer, and selecting the patient for treatment including administration of a therapeutically-effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, identifying or diagnosing a patient as having a RET-associated cancer can include a step of performing an assay on a sample obtained from the patient to determine whether the patient has a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, and identifying or diagnosing a patient determined to have a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, as having a RET-associated cancer. In some embodiments, the method of selecting a patient for treatment can be used as a part of a clinical study that includes administration of various treatments of a RET-associated cancer. In some embodiments, a RET-associated cancer is a cancer having one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations. In some embodiments, the assay is an in vitro assay. For example, an assay that utilizes the next generation sequencing, immunohistochemistry, or break apart FISH analysis. In some embodiments, the assay is a regulatory agency-approved, e.g., FDA-approved, kit. In some embodiments, the assay is a liquid biopsy. In some embodiments, the dysregulation of the RET gene, the RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same includes one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations.

In some embodiments of any of the methods or uses described herein, an assay used to determine whether the patient has a dysregulation of a RET gene, or a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, using a sample from a patient can include, for example, next generation sequencing, immunohistochemistry, fluorescence microscopy, break apart FISH analysis, Southern blotting, Western blotting, FACS analysis, Northern blotting, and PCR-based amplification (e.g., RT-PCR and quantitative real-time RT-PCR). As is well-known in the art, the assays are typically performed, e.g., with at least one labelled nucleic acid probe or at least one labelled antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof. Assays can utilize other detection methods known in the art for detecting dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or levels of any of the same (see, e.g., the references cited herein). In some embodiments, the dysregulation of the RET gene, the RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same includes one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations. In some embodiments, the sample is a biological sample or a biopsy sample (e.g., a paraffin-embedded biopsy sample) from the patient. In some embodiments, the patient is a patient suspected of having a RET-associated cancer, a patient having one or more symptoms of a RET-associated cancer, and/or a patient that has an increased risk of developing a RET-associated cancer).

In some embodiments, dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same can be identified using a liquid biopsy (variously referred to as a fluid biopsy or fluid phase biopsy). See, e.g., Karachialiou et al., “Real-time liquid biopsies become a reality in cancer treatment”, Ann. Transl. Med., 3(3):36, 2016. Liquid biopsy methods can be used to detect total tumor burden and/or the dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same. Liquid biopsies can be performed on biological samples obtained relatively easily from a subject (e.g., via a simple blood draw) and are generally less invasive than traditional methods used to detect tumor burden and/or dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same. In some embodiments, liquid biopsies can be used to detect the presence of dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same at an earlier stage than traditional methods. In some embodiments, the biological sample to be used in a liquid biopsy can include, blood, plasma, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, saliva, sputum, broncho-alveolar lavage, bile, lymphatic fluid, cyst fluid, stool, ascites, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, a liquid biopsy can be used to detect circulating tumor cells (CTCs). In some embodiments, a liquid biopsy can be used to detect cell-free DNA. In some embodiments, cell-free DNA detected using a liquid biopsy is circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) that is derived from tumor cells. Analysis of ctDNA (e.g., using sensitive detection techniques such as, without limitation, next-generation sequencing (NGS), traditional PCR, digital PCR, or microarray analysis) can be used to identify dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same.

In some embodiments, ctDNA derived from a single gene can be detected using a liquid biopsy. In some embodiments, ctDNA derived from a plurality of genes (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100 or more, or any number of genes in between these numbers) can be detected using a liquid biopsy. In some embodiments, ctDNA derived from a plurality of genes can be detected using any of a variety of commercially-available testing panels (e.g., commercially-available testing panels designed to detect dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same). Liquid biopsies can be used to detect dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same including, without limitation, point mutations or single nucleotide variants (SNVs), copy number variants (CNVs), genetic fusions (e.g., translocations or rearrangements), insertions, deletions, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, a liquid biopsy can be used to detect a germline mutation. In some embodiments, a liquid biopsy can be used to detect a somatic mutation. In some embodiments, a liquid biopsy can be used to detect a primary genetic mutation (e.g., a primary mutation or a primary fusion that is associated with initial development of a disease, e.g., cancer). In some embodiments, a liquid biopsy can be used to detect a genetic mutation that develops after development of the primary genetic mutation (e.g., a resistance mutation that arises in response to a treatment administered to a subject). In some embodiments, a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same identified using a liquid biopsy is also present in a cancer cell that is present in the subject (e.g., in a tumor). In some embodiments, any of the types of dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same described herein can be detected using a liquid biopsy. In some embodiments, a genetic mutation identified via a liquid biopsy can be used to identify the subject as a candidate for a particular treatment. For example, detection of dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in the subject can indicate that the subject will be responsive to a treatment that includes administration of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof.

Liquid biopsies can be performed at multiple times during a course of diagnosis, a course of monitoring, and/or a course of treatment to determine one or more clinically relevant parameters including, without limitation, progression of the disease, efficacy of a treatment, or development of resistance mutations after administering a treatment to the subject. For example, a first liquid biopsy can be performed at a first time point and a second liquid biopsy can be performed at a second time point during a course of diagnosis, a course of monitoring, and/or a course of treatment. In some embodiments, the first time point can be a time point prior to diagnosing a subject with a disease (e.g., when the subject is healthy), and the second time point can be a time point after subject has developed the disease (e.g., the second time point can be used to diagnose the subject with the disease). In some embodiments, the first time point can be a time point prior to diagnosing a subject with a disease (e.g., when the subject is healthy), after which the subject is monitored, and the second time point can be a time point after monitoring the subject. In some embodiments, the first time point can be a time point after diagnosing a subject with a disease, after which a treatment is administered to the subject, and the second time point can be a time point after the treatment is administered; in such cases, the second time point can be used to assess the efficacy of the treatment (e.g., if the genetic mutation(s) detected at the first time point are reduced in abundance or are undetectable) or to determine the presence of a resistance mutation that has arisen as a result of the treatment. In some embodiments, a treatment to be administered to a subject can include a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof.

In some embodiments, the efficacy of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, can be determined by assessing the allele frequency of a dysregulation of a RET gene in cfDNA obtained from a patient at different time points, e.g., cfDNA obtained from the patient at a first time point and cfDNA obtained from the patient at a second time point, where at least one dose of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, is administered to the patient between the first and second time points. Some embodiments of these methods can further include administering to the patient the at least one dose of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, between the first and second time points. For example, a reduction (e.g., a 1% to about a 99% reduction, a 1% to about a 95% reduction, a 1% to about a 90% reduction, a 1% to about a 85% reduction, a 1% to about a 80% reduction, a 1% to about a 75% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 70% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 65% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 60% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 55% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 50% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 45% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 40% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 35% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 30% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 25% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 20% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 15% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 10% reduction, a 1% to about a 5% reduction, about a 5% to about a 99% reduction, about a 10% to about a 99% reduction, about a 15% to about a 99% reduction, about a 20% to about a 99% reduction, about a 25% to about a 99% reduction, about a 30% to about a 99% reduction, about a 35% to about a 99% reduction, about a 40% to about a 99% reduction, about a 45% to about a 99% reduction, about a 50% to about a 99% reduction, about a 55% to about a 99% reduction, about a 60% to about a 99% reduction, about a 65% to about a 99% reduction, about a 70% to about a 99% reduction, about a 75% to about a 95% reduction, about a 80% to about a 99% reduction, about a 90% reduction to about a 99% reduction, about a 95% to about a 99% reduction, about a 5% to about a 10% reduction, about a 5% to about a 25% reduction, about a 10% to about a 30% reduction, about a 20% to about a 40% reduction, about a 25% to about a 50% reduction, about a 35% to about a 55% reduction, about a 40% to about a 60% reduction, about a 50% reduction to about a 75% reduction, about a 60% reduction to about 80% reduction, or about a 65% to about a 85% reduction) in the allele frequency (AF) of the dysregulation of a RET gene in the cfDNA obtained from the patient at the second time point as compared to the allele frequency (AF) of the dysregulation of a RET gene in the cfDNA obtained from the patient at the first time point indicates that the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, was effective in the subject. In some embodiments, the AF is reduced such that the level is below the detection limit of the instrument. Alternatively, an increase in the allele frequency (AF) of the dysregulation of a RET gene in the cfDNA obtained from the patient at the second time point as compared to the allele frequency (AF) of the dysregulation of a RET gene in the cfDNA obtained from the patient at the first time point indicates that the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, was not effective in the subject (e.g., the subject has developed a resistance mutation to the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof). Some embodiments of these methods can further include, administering additional doses of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, to a patient in which a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, was determined to be effective. Some embodiments of these methods can further include, administering a different treatment (e.g., a treatment that does not include the administration of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as a monotherapy) to a patient in which a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, was determined not to be effective.

In some examples of these methods, the time difference between the first and second time points can be about 1 day to about 1 year, about 1 day to about 11 months, about 1 day to about 10 months, about 1 day to about 9 months, about 1 day to about 8 months, about 1 day to about 7 months, about 1 day to about 6 months, about 1 day to about 5 months, about 1 day to about 4 months, about 1 day to about 3 months, about 1 day to about 10 weeks, about 1 day to about 2 months, about 1 day to about 6 weeks, about 1 day to about 1 month, about 1 day to about 25 days, about 1 day to about 20 days, about 1 day to about 15 days, about 1 day to about 10 days, about 1 day to about 5 days, about 2 days to about 1 year, about 5 days to about 1 year, about 10 days to about 1 year, about 15 days to about 1 year, about 20 days to about 1 year, about 25 days to about 1 year, about 1 month to about 1 year, about 6 weeks to about 1 year, about 2 months to about 1 year, about 3 months to about 1 year, about 4 months to about 1 year, about 5 months to about 1 year, about 6 months to about 1 year, about 7 months to about 1 year, about 8 months to about 1 year, about 9 months to about 1 year, about 10 months to about 1 year, about 11 months to about 1 year, about 1 day to about 7 days, about 1 day to about 14 days, about 5 days to about 10 days, about 5 day to about 20 days, about 10 days to about 20 days, about 15 days to about 1 month, about 15 days to about 2 months, about 1 week to about 1 month, about 2 weeks to about 1 month, about 1 month to about 3 months, about 3 months to about 6 months, about 4 months to about 6 months, about 5 months to about 8 months, or about 7 months to about 9 months. In some embodiments of these methods, the patient can be previously identified as having a cancer having a dysregulated RET gene (e.g., any of the examples of a dysregulated RET gene described herein). In some embodiments of these methods, a patient can have been previously diagnosed as having any of the types of cancer described herein. In some embodiments of these methods, the patient can have one or more metastases (e.g., one or more brain metastases).

In some of the above embodiments, the cfDNA comprises ctDNA such as RET-associated ctDNA. For example, the cfDNA is ctDNA such as RET-associated ctDNA. In some embodiments, at least some portion of cfDNA is determined to be RET-associated ctDNA, for example, a sequenced and/or quantified amount of the total cfDNA is determined to have a RET fusion and/or a RET resistance mutation.

In the field of medical oncology it is normal practice to use a combination of different forms of treatment to treat each patient with cancer. In medical oncology the other component(s) of such conjoint treatment or therapy in addition to compositions provided herein may be, for example, surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapeutic agents, such as other kinase inhibitors, signal transduction inhibitors and/or monoclonal antibodies. For example, a surgery may be open surgery or minimally invasive surgery. Compounds of Formula I, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates thereof therefore may also be useful as adjuvants to cancer treatment, that is, they can be used in combination with one or more additional therapies or therapeutic agents, for example, a chemotherapeutic agent that works by the same or by a different mechanism of action. In some embodiments, a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, can be used prior to administration of an additional therapeutic agent or additional therapy. For example, a patient in need thereof can be administered one or more doses of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof for a period of time and then under go at least partial resection of the tumor. In some embodiments, the treatment with one or more doses of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof reduces the size of the tumor (e.g., the tumor burden) prior to the at least partial resection of the tumor. In some embodiments, a patient in need thereof can be administered one or more doses of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof for a period of time and under one or more rounds of radiation therapy. In some embodiments, the treatment with one or more doses of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof reduces the size of the tumor (e.g., the tumor burden) prior to the one or more rounds of radiation therapy.

In some embodiments, a patient has a cancer (e.g., a locally advanced or metastatic tumor) that is refractory or intolerant to standard therapy (e.g., administration of a chemotherapeutic agent, such as a first RET inhibitor or a multikinase inhibitor, immunotherapy, or radiation (e.g., radioactive iodine)). In some embodiments, a patient has a cancer (e.g., a locally advanced or metastatic tumor) that is refractory or intolerant to prior therapy (e.g., administration of a chemotherapeutic agent, such as a first RET inhibitor or a multikinase inhibitor, immunotherapy, or radiation (e.g., radioactive iodine)). In some embodiments, a patient has a cancer (e.g., a locally advanced or metastatic tumor) that has no standard therapy. In some embodiments, a patient is RET-kinase inhibitor naïve. For example, the patient is naïve to treatment with a selective RET-kinase inhibitor. In some embodiments, a patient is not RET-kinase inhibitor naïve.

In some embodiments, a patient has undergone prior therapy. In some embodiments, a patient having NSCLC (e.g, a RET-fusion positive NSCLS) has received treatment with a platinum-based chemotherapy, PD-1/PDL1 immunotherapy, or both prior to treatment with a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, a patient having a thyroid cancer (e.g., a RET-fusion positive thyroid cancer) has received treatment with one or more of sorafenib, lenvatinib, and radioactive iodine prior to treatment with a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, a patient having a colorectal cancer (e.g., a RET-fusion positive colorectal cancer) has received treatment with a fluoropyrimidine-based chemotherapy, with or without ant-VEGF-directed therapy or anti-EGFR-directed therapy, prior to treatment with a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, a patient having a pancreatic cancer (e.g., a RET-fusion positive pancreatic cancer) has received treatment with one or more of a fluoropyrimidine-based chemotherapy, a gemcitabine-based chemotherapy, and a S-1 chemotherapy prior to treatment with a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, a patient having a breast cancer (e.g., a RET-fusion positive breast cancer) has received treatment with one or more of anthracycline, taxane, HER2-directed therapy, and hormonal therapy prior to treatment with a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, a patient having a MTC (e.g., a RET-fusion positive MTC cancer) has received treatment with one or more of caboxantinib and vandetanib prior to treatment with a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof.

In some embodiments of any the methods described herein, the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, is administered in combination with a therapeutically effective amount of at least one additional therapeutic agent selected from one or more additional therapies or therapeutic (e.g., chemotherapeutic) agents.

Non-limiting examples of additional therapeutic agents include: other RET-targeted therapeutic agents (i.e. a first or second RET kinase inhibitor), other kinase inhibitors (e.g., receptor tyrosine kinase-targeted therapeutic agents (e.g., Trk inhibitors or EGFR inhibitors)), signal transduction pathway inhibitors, checkpoint inhibitors, modulators of the apoptosis pathway (e.g. obataclax); cytotoxic chemotherapeutics, angiogenesis-targeted therapies, immune-targeted agents, including immunotherapy, and radiotherapy. In some embodiments, the other RET-targeted therapeutic is a multikinase inhibitor exhibiting RET inhibition activity. In some embodiments, the other RET-targeted therapeutic inhibitor is selective for a RET kinase. Exemplary RET kinase inhibitors can exhibit inhibition activity (IC₅₀) against a RET kinase of less than about 1000 nM, less than about 500 nM, less than about 200 nM, less than about 100 nM, less than about 50 nM, less than about 25 nM, less than about 10 nM, or less than about 1 nM as measured in an assay as described herein. In some embodiments, a RET kinase inhibitors can exhibit inhibition activity (IC₅₀) against a RET kinase of less than about 25 nM, less than about 10 nM, less than about 5 nM, or less than about 1 nM as measured in an assay as provided herein.

Non-limiting examples of RET-targeted therapeutic agents (e.g., a first RET inhibitor or a second RET inhibitor) include alectinib (9-Ethyl-6,6-dimethyl-8-[4-(morpholin-4-yl)piperidin-1-yl]-11-oxo-6,11-dihydro-5H-benzo[b]carbazole-3-carbonitrile); amuvatinib (MP470, HPK56) (N-(1,3-benzodioxol-5-ylmethyl)-4-([1]benzofuro[3,2-d]pyrimidin-4-yl)piperazine-1-carbothioamide); apatinib (YN968D1)(N-[4-(1-cyanocyclopentyl) phenyl-2-(4-picolyl)amino-3-Nicotinamide methanesulphonate); cabozantinib (Cometriq XL-184) (N-(4-((6,7-Dimethoxyquinolin-4-yl)oxy)phenyl)-N′-(4-fluorophenyl)cyclopropane-1,1-dicarboxamide); dovitinib (TKI258; GFKI-258; CHIR-258) ((3Z)-4-amino-5-fluoro-3-[5-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)-1,3-dihydrobenzimidazol-2-ylidene]quinolin-2-one); famitinib (5-[2-(diethylamino)ethyl]-2-[(Z)-(5-fluoro-2-oxo-1H-indol-3-ylidene)methyl]-3-methyl-6,7-dihydro-1H-pyrrolo[3,2-c]pyridin-4-one); fedratinib (SAR302503, TG101348) (N-(2-Methyl-2-propanyl)-3-{[5-methyl-2-({4-[2-(1-pyrrolidinyl)ethoxy]phenyl}amino)-4-pyrimidinyl]amino}benzenesulfonamide); foretinib (XL880, EXEL-2880, GSK1363089, GSK089) (N1′-[3-fluoro-4-[[6-methoxy-7-(3-morpholinopropoxy)-4-quinolyl]oxy]phenyl]-N1-(4-fluorophenyl)cyclopropane-1,1-dicarboxamide); fostamantinib (R788)(2H-Pyrido[3,2-b]-1,4-oxazin-3(4H)-one, 6-[[5-fluoro-2-[(3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl)amino]-4-pyrimidinyl]amino]-2,2-dimethyl-4-[(phosphonooxy)methyl]-, sodium salt (1:2)); ilorasertib (ABT-348) (1-(4-(4-amino-7-(1-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)thieno[3,2-c]pyridin-3-yl)phenyl)-3-(3-fluorophenyl)urea); lenvatinib (E7080, Lenvima) (4-[3-chloro-4-(cyclopropylaminocarbonyl)aminophenoxy]-7-methoxy-6-quinolinecarboxamide); motesanib (AMG 706) (N-(3,3-Dimethyl-2,3-dihydro-1H-indol-6-yl)-2-[(pyridin-4-ylmethyl)amino]pyridine-3-carboxamide); nintedanib (3-Z-[1-(4-(N-((4-methyl-piperazin-1-yl)-methylcarbonyl)-N-methyl-amino)-anilino)-1-phenyl-methylene]-6-methyoxycarbonyl-2-indolinone); ponatinib (AP24534) (3-(2-Imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-3-ylethynyl)-4-methyl-N-[4-[(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)methyl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]benzamide); PP242 (torkinib)(2-[4-Amino-1-(1-methylethyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-3-yl]-1H-indol-5-ol); quizartinib (1-(5-(tert-Butyl)isoxazol-3-yl)-3-(4-(7-(2-morpholinoethoxy)benzo[d]imidazo[2,1-b]thiazol-2-yl)phenyl)urea); regorafenib (BAY 73-4506, stivarga) (4-[4-({[4-Chloro-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]carbamoyl}amino)-3-fluorophenoxy]-N-methylpyridine-2-carboxamide hydrate); RXDX-105 (CEP-32496, agerafenib) (1-(3-((6,7-dimethoxyquinazolin-4-yl)oxy)phenyl)-3-(5-(1,1,1-trifluoro-2-methylpropan-2-yl)isoxazol-3-yl)urea); semaxanib (SU5416) ((3Z)-3-[(3,5-dimethyl-1H-pyrrol-2-yl)methylidene]-1,3-dihydro-2H-indol-2-one); sitravatinib (MGCD516, MG516) (N-(3-Fluoro-4-{[2-(5-{[(2-methoxyethyl)amino]methyl}-2-pyridinyl)thieno[3,2-b]pyridin-7-yl]oxy}phenyl)-N′-(4-fluorophenyl)-1,1-cyclopropanedicarboxamide); sorafenib (BAY 43-9006) (4-[4-[[[[4-chloro-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]amino]carbonyl]amino]phenoxy]-N-methyl-2-pyridinecarboxamide); vandetanib (N-(4-bromo-2-fluorophenyl)-6-methoxy-7-[(1-methylpiperidin-4-yl)methoxy]quinazolin-4-amine); vatalanib (PTK787, PTK/ZK, ZK222584) (N-(4-chlorophenyl)-4-(pyridin-4-ylmethyl)phthalazin-1-amine); AD-57 (N-[4-[4-amino-1-(1-methylethyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-3-yl]phenyl]-N′-[3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-urea); AD-80 (1-[4-(4-amino-1-propan-2-ylpyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-3-yl)phenyl]-3-[2-fluoro-5-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]urea); AD-81 (1-(4-(4-amino-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-3-yl)phenyl)-3-(4-chloro-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)urea); ALW-II-41-27 (N-(5-((4-((4-ethylpiperazin-1-yl)methyl)-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)carbamoyl)-2-methylphenyl)-5-(thiophen-2-yl)nicotinamide); BPR1K871 (1-(3-chlorophenyl)-3-(5-(2-((7-(3-(dimethylamino)propoxy)quinazolin-4-yl)amino)ethyl)thiazol-2-yl)urea); CLM3 (1-phenethyl-N-(1-phenylethyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine); EBI-907 (N-(2-chloro-3-(1-cyclopropyl-8-methoxy-3H-pyrazolo[3,4-c]isoquinolin-7-yl)-4-fluorophenyl)-3-fluoropropane-1-sulfonamide); NVP-AST-487 (N-[4-[(4-ethyl-1-piperazinyl)methyl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-N′-[4-[[6-(methylamino)-4-pyrimidinyl]oxy]phenyl]-urea); NVP-BBT594 (BBT594) (5-((6-acetamidopyrimidin-4-yl)oxy)-N-(4-((4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)methyl)-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)indoline-1-carboxamide); PD173955 (6-(2,6-dichlorophenyl)-8-methyl-2-(3-methylsulfanylanilino)pyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidin-7-one); PP2 (4-amino-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-7-(dimethylethyl)pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine); PZ-1 (N-(5-(tert-butyl)isoxazol-3-yl)-2-(4-(5-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-1Hbenzo[d]imidazol-1-yl)phenyl)acetamide); RPI-1 (1,3-dihydro-5,6-dimethoxy-3-[(4-hydroxyphenyl)methylene]-1H-indol-2-one; (3E)-3-[(4-hydroxyphenyl)methylidene]-5,6-dimethoxy-1H-indol-2-one); SGI-7079 (3-[2-[[3-fluoro-4-(4-methyl-1-piperazinyl)phenyl]amino]-5-methyl-7H-pyrrolo[2,3-d]pyrimidin-4-yl]-benzeneacetonitrile); SPP86 (1-Isopropyl-3-(phenylethynyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine); SU4984 (4-[4-[(E)-(2-oxo-1H-indol-3-ylidene)methyl]phenyl]piperazine-1-carbaldehyde); sunitinb (SU11248) (N-(2-Diethylaminoethyl)-5-[(Z)-(5-fluoro-2-oxo-1H-indol-3-ylidene)methyl]-2,4-dimethyl-1H-pyrrole-3-carboxamide); TG101209 (N-tert-butyl-3-(5-methyl-2-(4-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)phenylamino)pyrimidin-4-ylamino)benzenesulfonamide); Withaferin A ((4β,5β,6β,22R)-4,27-Dihydroxy-5,6:22,26-diepoxyergosta-2,24-diene-1,26-dione); XL-999 ((Z)-5-((1-ethylpiperidin-4-yl)amino)-3-((3-fluorophenyl)(5-methyl-1H-imidazol-2-yl)methylene)indolin-2-one); BPR1J373 (a 5-phenylthiazol-2-ylamine-pyriminide derivative); CG-806 (CG′806); DCC-2157; GTX-186; HG-6-63-01 ((E)-3-(2-(4-chloro-1H-pyrrolo[2,3-b]pyridin-5-yl)vinyl)-N-(4-((4-ethylpiperazin-1-yl)methyl)-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-4-methylbenzamide); SW-01 (Cyclobenzaprine hydrochloride); XMD15-44 (N-(4-((4-ethylpiperazin-1-yl)methyl)-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-4-methyl-3-(pyridin-3-ylethynyl)benzamide (generated from structure)); Y078-DM1 (an antibody drug conjugate composed of a RET antibody (Y078) linked to a derivative of the cytotoxic agent maytansine); Y078-DM4 (an antibody drug conjugate composed of a RET antibody (Y078) linked to a derivative of the cytotoxic agent maytansine); ITRI-305 (DON5 TB, DIB003599); BLU-667 ((1S,4R)—N—((S)-1-(6-(4-fluoro-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)ethyl)-1-methoxy-4-(4-methyl-6-((5-methyl-1H-pyrazol-3-yl)amino)pyrimidin-2-yl)cyclohexane-1-carboxamide); BLU6864; DS-5010 (BOS172738); GSK3179106; GSK3352589; NMS-E668; TAS0286/HM05; TPX0046; and N-(3-(2-(dimethylamino)ethoxy)-5-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-2-(4-(4-ethoxy-6-oxo-1,6-dihydropyridin-3-yl)-2-fluorophenyl)acetamide.

Further examples of RET-targeted therapeutics (e.g., a first RET kinase inhibitor a or a second RET kinase inhibitor) include 5-amino-3-(5-cyclopropylisoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazole-4-carboxamide; 3-(5-cyclopropylisoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine; 3-((6,7-Dimethoxyquinazolin-4-yl)amino)-4-fluoro-2-methylphenol; N-(5-(tert-butyl)isoxazol-3-yl)-2-(4-(imidazo[1,2-a]pyridin-6-yl)phenyl)acetamide; N-(5-(tert-butyl)isoxazol-3-yl)-2-(3-(imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-6-yloxy)phenyl)acetamide; N-(2-fluoro-5-trifluoromethylphenyl)-N′-{4′-[(2″-benzamido)pyridin-4″-ylamino]phenyl}urea; 2-amino-6-{[2-(4-chlorophenyl)-2-oxoethyl]sulfanyl}-4-(3-thienyl)pyridine-3,5-dicarbonitrile; and 3-arylureidobenzylidene-indolin-2-ones.

Additional examples of other RET kinase inhibitors include those described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 9,150,517 and 9,149,464, and International Publication No. WO 2014075035, all of which are hereby incorporated by reference. For example, in some embodiments the other RET inhibitor is a compound of formula I:

wherein R₁ is C6-C24alkyl or polyethylene glycol; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt form thereof. In some embodiments, the other RET inhibitor is 4-{5-[bis-(chloroethyl)-amino]-1-methyl-1H-benzimidazol-2-yl}butyric acid dodecyl ester.

Additional examples of other RET kinase inhibitors include those described in International Publication No. WO 2016127074, which is hereby incorporated by reference. For example, in some embodiments, the other RET inhibitor is a compound of Formula (I) or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

wherein Rings A and B are each independently selected from aryl, heteroaryl, cycloalkyl and heterocyclyl;

each L¹ and L² is independently selected from a bond, —(C1-C6 alkylene)-, —(C2-C6alkenylene)-, —(C2-C6 alkynylene)-, —(C1-C6 haloalkylene)-, —(C1-C6 heteroalkylene)-, —C(O)—, —O—, —S—, —S(O), —S(O)₂—, —N(R¹)—, —O—(C1-C6 alkylene)-, —(C1-C6 alkylene)-O—, —N(R¹)—C(O)—, —C(O)N(R¹)—, —(C1-C6 alkylene)-N(R¹)—, —N(R¹)—(C1-C6 alkylene)-, —N(R¹)—C(O)—(C1-C6 alkylene)-, —(C1-C6 alkylene)-N(R¹)—C(O)—, —C(O)—N(R¹)—(C1-C6 alkylene)-, —(C1-C6 alkylene)-C(O)—N(R¹)—, —N(R¹)—S(O)₂—, —S(O)₂—N(R¹)—, —N(R¹)—S(O)₂—(C1-C6 alkylene)-, and —S(O)₂—N(R¹)—(C1-C6 alkylene)-; wherein each alkylene, alkenylene, alkynylene, haloalkylene, and heteroalkylene is independently substituted with 0-5 occurrences of R¹;

each R^(A) and R^(B) is independently selected from C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 alkoxy, halo, C1-C6 haloalkyl, C1-C6 hydroxyalkyl, C1-C6 heteroalkyl, and —N(R¹)(R¹); wherein each alkyl, alkoxy, haloalkyl, hydroxyalkyl, and hydroxyalkyl is independently substituted with 0-5 occurrences of Ra;

each R^(C) and R^(D) is independently selected from C1-C6 alkyl, C2-C6 alkenyl, C2-C6 alkynyl, C1-C6 alkoxy, halo, C1-C6 heteroalkyl, C1-C6 haloalkyl, C1-C6 haloalkoxy, C1-C6 hydroxyalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aryloxy, aralkyl, heterocyclyl, heterocyclylalkyl, nitro, cyano, —C(O)R¹, —OC(O)R¹, —C(O)OR¹, —(C1-C6 alkylene)-C(O)R¹, —SR¹, —S(O)₂R′, —S(O)₂—N(R¹)(R¹), —(C1-C6 alkylene)-S(O)₂R¹, —(C1-C6 alkylene)-S(O)₂—N(R′)(R′), —N(R′)(R¹)—C(O)—N(R¹)(R¹)—N(R′)—C(O)R¹, —N(R′)—C(O)OR¹, —(C1-C6 alkylene)-N(R′)—C(O)R¹, —N(R¹)S(O)₂R¹, and —P(O)(R′)(R′); wherein each of alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, alkoxy, heteroalkyl, haloalkyl, haloalkoxy, hydroxyalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aryloxy, aralkyl, heterocyclyl, and heterocyclylalkyl is independently substituted with 0-5 occurrences of R^(a); or 2 R^(C) or 2 R^(D) together with the carbon atom(s) to which they are attached form a cycloalkyl or heterocyclyl ring independently substituted with 0-5 occurrences of R^(a);

each R¹ is independently selected from hydrogen, hydroxyl, halo, thiol, C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 thioalkyl, C1-C6 alkoxy, C1-C6 haloalkyl, C1-C6 hydroxyalkyl, C1-C6 heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, heterocyclyl, and heterocyclylalkyl, wherein each of alkyl, thioalkyl, alkoxy, haloalkyl, hydroxyalkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, heterocyclyl, and heterocyclylalkyl is independently substituted with 0-5 occurrences of R^(b), or 2 R¹ together with the atom(s) to which they are attached form a cycloalkyl or heterocyclyl ring independently substituted with 0-5 occurrences of R^(b);

each R^(a) and R^(b) is independently C1-C6 alkyl, halo, hydroxyl, C1-C6 haloalkyl, C1-C6 heteroalkyl, C1-C6 hydroxyalkyl, C1-C6 alkoxy, cycloalkyl, heterocyclyl, or cyano, wherein each of alkyl, haloalkyl, heteroalkyl, hydroxyalkyl, alkoxy, cycloalkyl and heterocyclyl is independently substituted with 0-5 occurrences of R′;

each R′ is C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 heteroalkyl, halo, hydroxyl, C1-C6 haloalkyl, C1-C6 hydroxyalkyl, cycloalkyl or cyano; or 2 R′, together with the atom(s) to which they are attached form a cycloalkyl or heterocyclyl ring;

m is 0, 1, 2, or 3;

n is 0, 1, or 2; and

p and q are each independently 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4. For example, a RET inhibitor can be selected from the group consisting of.

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

Additional examples of other RET kinase inhibitors include those described in International Publication No. WO 2016075224, which is hereby incorporated by reference. For example, in some embodiments, the other RET inhibitor is a compound of Formula (II) or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

R1 and R2 are independently hydrogen or an optionally substituted group selected from straight or branched (C₁-C₆) alkyl, (C₃-C₆) cycloalkyl and COR′, wherein R′ is an optionally substituted group selected from straight or branched (C₁-C₆) alkyl and (C₃-C₆) cycloalkyl;

R3 is hydrogen or an optionally substituted group selected from straight or branched (C1-C6) alkyl, (C2-C6) alkenyl, (C2-C6) alkynyl, (C3-C6) cycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl and a 3- to 7-membered heterocyclyl ring;

R4 is hydrogen or an optionally substituted group selected from straight or branched (C1-C6) alkyl, (C2-C6) alkenyl, aryl, heteroaryl or heterocyclyl;

A is a 5- or 6-membered heteroaryl ring or a phenyl ring;

B is a 5- or 6-membered ring selected from heteroaryl, (C₅-C₆) cycloalkyl and heterocyclyl ring or a phenyl ring; wherein ring A and ring B are fused together to form a bicyclic system comprising a 6-membered aromatic or 5- to 6-membered heteroaromatic ring fused with a 6-membered aromatic or 5- to 6-membered heteroaromatic, (C₅-C₆) cycloalkyl or heterocyclyl ring;

Y is carbon or nitrogen;

X is hydrogen, halogen, hydroxyl, cyano or an optionally substituted group selected from straight or branched (C₁-C₆) alkyl and (C₁-C₆) alkoxyl; and

R5 and R6 are independently hydrogen or an optionally substituted group selected from straight or branched (C₁-C₆) alkyl, (C₃-C₆) cycloalkyl, heterocyclyl, aryl and heteroaryl.

Additional examples of other RET kinase inhibitors include those described in International Publication No. WO 2015079251, which is hereby incorporated by reference. For example, in some embodiments, the other RET inhibitor is a compound of Formula (III) or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, wherein:

X is NH, NR_(x), 0 or S, wherein R_(x) is (1-3C)alkyl;

R₁ is selected from halo (e.g., fluoro, chloro, or bromo), trifluoromethyl, (1-4C)alkyl (e.g., methyl), (1-4C)alkoxy or (3-6C)cycloalkyl, wherein an alkyl, alkoxy or cycloalkyl group is optionally substituted with one or more fluoro;

R₂ is selected from hydrogen, halo (e.g., fluoro, chloro or bromo), hydroxyl, cyano, trifluoromethyl, trifluoromethoxy, (1-6C)alkyl (e.g., methyl), (3-8C)cycloalkyl, or (1-4C)alkoxy (e.g., OMe), wherein an alkyl, cycloalkyl or alkoxy group is optionally substituted with one or more fluoro;

R₃ is selected from hydrogen, halo (e.g. fluoro, chloro or bromo), hydroxyl, cyano, trifluoromethyl, trifluoromethoxy, (1-6C)alkyl (e.g., methyl), (3-8C)cycloalkyl, or (1-4C)alkoxy (e.g., OMe), wherein an alkyl, cycloalkyl or alkoxy group is optionally substituted with one or more fluoro;

R₄ is selected from hydrogen, halo (e.g., fluoro, chloro or bromo), hydroxyl, cyano, trifluoromethyl, trifluoromethoxy, (1-6C)alkyl (e.g., methyl), (3-8C)cycloalkyl, or (1-4C)alkoxy (e.g., OMe), wherein an alkyl, cycloalkyl or alkoxy group is optionally substituted with one or more fluoro;

R₅ is selected from hydrogen or a group defined by the formula: —O-L₅-X₅-Q₅;

wherein

-   -   L₅ is absent or a linear or branched (1-4C)alkylene;     -   X₅ is absent or —C(O)O—, —O—, —C(O)—, —OC(O)—, —CH(QR_(5L))—,         —N(R^(j))—, —N(R_(5L))—C(O)—, —N(R_(5L))—C(O)O—,         —C(O)—N(R_(5L))—, —S—, —SO—, —SO₂—, —S(O)₂N(R_(5L))—, or         —N(R_(5L))SO₂— wherein R_(5L) is selected from hydrogen or         methyl; and     -   Q₅ is (1-6C)alkyl, (2-6C)alkenyl, (2-6C)alkynyl,         (3-8C)cycloalkyl, (3-8C)cycloalkyl-(1-4C)alkyl, aryl,         aryl-(1-4C)alkyl, heteroaryl, heteroaryl-(1-4C)alkyl,         heterocyclyl or heterocyclyl-(1-4C)alkyl;

R₆ is selected from hydrogen, or a group defined by the formula: —O-L₆-X₆-Q₆

wherein

-   -   L₆ is absent or a linear or branched (1-4C)alkylene;     -   X₆ is absent or selected from —O—, —C(O)—, —C(O)O—, —OC(O)—,         —CH(OR_(6L))—, —N(R_(6L)), —N(R_(6L))—C(O)—, —N(R_(6L))—C(O)O—,         —C(O)—N(R_(6L))—, —S—, —SO—, —SO₂—, —S(O)₂N(R_(6L))—, or         —N(R_(6L))SO₂— wherein R_(6L) is selected from hydrogen or         (1-3C)alkyl;     -   Q₆ is hydrogen, (1-8C)alkyl, (2-8C)alkenyl, (2-8C)alkynyl,         (3-8C)cycloalkyl, (3-8C)cycloalkyl-(1-6C)alkyl, aryl,         aryl-(1-6C)alkyl, heteroaryl, heteroaryl-(1-6C)alkyl,         heterocyclyl, heterocyclyl-(1-6C)alkyl,     -   or Q₆ and R_(L6) are linked such that, together with the         nitrogen atom to which they are attached, they form a         heterocyclic ring;     -   wherein R₆ is optionally substituted (e.g. substituted on L₆         and/or Q₆) with one or more (1-6C)alkyl, (1-6C)alkanoyl,         OR_(6X), SR_(6X), S(O)R_(6X), S(O)₂R_(6X), C(O)OR_(6X) or         C(O)NR_(6X)R′_(6X), wherein R_(6X) and R′_(6X) are independently         hydrogen, (1-8C)alkyl, or R_(6X) and R′_(6X) are linked such         that, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are         attached, they form a heterocyclic ring; and

R₇ is selected from hydrogen, (1-6C)alkoxy, or a group defined by the formula: —O-L₇-X₇-Q₇-

wherein

-   -   L₇ is absent or a linear or branched (1-4C)alkylene;     -   X₇ is absent or selected from —O—, —C(O)—, —C(O)O—, —OC(O)—,         —CH(OR_(6L))—, —N(R_(7L))—, —N(R_(7L))—C(O)—, —N(R_(7L))—C(O)O—,         —C(O)—N(R_(7L))—, —S—, —SO—, —SO₂—, —S(O)₂N(R_(7L))—, or         —N(R_(7L))SO₂— wherein R_(7L) is selected from hydrogen or         (1-3C)alkyl;     -   Q₇ is hydrogen, (1-8C)alkyl, (2-8C)alkenyl, (2-8C)alkynyl,         (3-8C)cycloalkyl, (3-8C)cycloalkyl-(1-6C)alkyl, aryl,         aryl-(1-6C)alkyl, heteroaryl, heteroaryl-(1-6C)alkyl,         heterocyclyl, heterocyclyl-(1-6C)alkyl,     -   or Q₇ and R_(7L) are linked such that, together with the         nitrogen atom to which they are attached, they form a         heterocyclic ring;     -   wherein R₇ is optionally substituted (e.g., substituted on L₇         and/or Q₇) with one or more halo, hydroxyl, nitro, cyano,         (1-8C)alkyl, (1-8C)alkanoyl, OR_(7X), SR_(7X), S(O)R_(7X),         S(O)₂R_(7X), C(O)OR_(7X) or C(O)NR_(7X)R′_(7X), wherein R_(7X)         and R′_(7X) are independently hydrogen, (1-8C)alkyl, or R_(7X)         and R′_(7X) are linked such that, together with the nitrogen         atom to which they are attached, they form a heterocyclic ring;         or     -   R₇ is optionally substituted with one or more groups selected         from oxo, (1-4C)haloalkyl, (1-4C)hydroxyalkyl, C(O)R_(7y) or         NR_(7y)R′_(7y), wherein R_(7y) and R′_(7y) are independently         hydrogen or (1-8C)alkyl.

Additional examples of other RET kinase inhibitors include those described in International Publication No. WO2017178845, which is hereby incorporated by reference. For example, in some embodiments, the other RET inhibitor is a compound of Formula (IV) or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

HET is selected from one of the following:

wherein

denotes the point of attachment;

R¹ is selected from hydrogen, (1-4C)haloalkyl, (1-4C)haloalkoxy or a group of the formula: -L-Y-Q

wherein:

-   -   L is absent or (1-5C)alkylene optionally substituted by one or         more substituents selected from (1-2C)alkyl or oxo;     -   Y is absent or O, S, SO, SO₂, N(R_(a)), C(O), C(O), OC(O),         C(O)N(R_(a)), N(R_(a))C(O), N(R_(a))C(O)N(R_(b)), N(R_(a))C(O)O,         OC(O)N(R_(a)), S(O)₂N(R_(a)), or N(R_(a))SO₂, wherein R_(a) and         R_(b) are each independently selected from hydrogen or         (1-4C)alkyl; and     -   Q is hydrogen, (1-6C)alkyl, (2-6C)alkenyl, (2-6C)alkynyl, aryl,         (3-10C)cycloalkyl, (3-10C)cycloalkenyl, heteroaryl or         heterocyclyl; wherein Q is optionally further substituted by one         or more substituent groups independently selected from         (1-4C)alkyl, halo, (1-4C)haloalkyl, (1-4C)haloalkoxy, amino,         (1-4C)aminoalkyl, cyano, hydroxy, carboxy, carbamoyl,         sulphamoyl, mercapto, ureido, NR_(c)R_(d), OR_(c), C(O)R_(e),         C(O)OR_(c), OC(O)R_(c), C(O)N(R_(d))R_(c), N(R_(d))C(O)R_(c),         S(O)_(p)R_(c) (where p is 0, 1 or 2), SO₂N(R_(d))R_(c),         N(R_(d))SO₂R_(c), Si(R_(e))(R_(d))R_(c) or (CH₂)_(q)NR_(c)R_(d)         (where q is 1, 2 or 3); wherein R_(c), R_(d) and R_(e) are each         independently selected from hydrogen, (1-6C)alkyl or         (3-6C)cycloalkyl; or R_(c) and R_(d) are linked such that,         together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, they         form a 4-7 membered heterocyclic ring which is optionally         substituted by one or more substituents selected from         (1-4C)alkyl, halo, (1-4C)haloalkyl, (1-4C)haloalkoxy,         (1-4C)alkoxy, (1-4C)alkylamino, amino, cyano or hydroxy; or Q is         optionally substituted by a group of the formula:         -L₁-L_(Q1)-W₁

wherein:

-   -   L₁ is absent or (1-3C)alkylene optionally substituted by one or         more substituents selected from (1-2C)alkyl or oxo; L_(Q1) is         absent or selected from O, S, SO, SO₂, N(R_(f)), C(O), C(O)O,         OC(O), C(O)N(R_(f)), N(R_(f))C(O), N(R_(f))C(O)N(R_(g)),         N(R_(f))C(O)O, OC(O)N(R_(f)), S(O)₂N(R_(f)), or N(R_(f))SO₂,         wherein R_(f) and R_(g) are each independently selected from         hydrogen or (1-2C)alkyl; and     -   W₁ is hydrogen, (1-6C)alkyl, aryl, aryl(1-2C)alkyl,         (3-8C)cycloalkyl, (3-8C)cycloalkenyl, heteroaryl or         heterocyclyl; wherein W₁ is optionally substituted by one or         more substituents selected from (1-4C)alkyl, halo,         (1-4C)haloalkyl, (1-4C)haloalkoxy, (1-4C)alkoxy,         (1-4C)alkylamino, amino, cyano, hydroxy, carboxy, carbamoyl,         sulphamoyl, mercapto, ureido, aryl, heteroaryl, heterocycyl,         (3-6C)cycloalkyl, NR_(h)R_(i), OR_(h), C(O)R_(h), C(O)OR_(h),         OC(O)R_(h), C(O)N(R_(i))R_(h), N(R_(i))C(O)R_(h), S(O)_(r)R_(h)         (where r is 0, 1 or 2), SO₂N(R_(i))R_(h), N(R_(i))SO₂R_(h) or         (CH₂)_(s)NR_(i)R_(h) (where s is 1, 2 or 3); wherein R_(h) and         R_(i) are each independently selected from hydrogen, (1-4C)alkyl         or (3-6C)cycloalkyl;

R_(1a) and R_(1b) are each selected from H, (1-4C)alkyl, halo, (1-4C)haloalkyl, (1-4C)haloalkoxy, (1-4C)alkoxy, (1-4C)alkylamino, amino, cyano, hydroxy, carboxy, carbamoyl, sulphamoyl or mercapto;

W is selected from 0, S or NR_(W1), wherein R_(W1) is selected from H or (1-2C)alkyl;

X₁, X₂, X₃ and X₄ are independently selected from CH, CR₂ or N;

R₂ is selected from hydrogen, halo, (1-4C)alkyl, (1-4C)alkoxy, (1-4C)haloalkyl, (1-4C)haloalkoxy, amino, cyano, nitro, aryl, heteroaryl, heterocyclyl, cycloalkyl, (2-4C)alkynyl, NR_(j)R_(k), OR_(j), C(O)R_(j), C(O)OR_(j), OC(O)R_(j), C(O)N(R_(k))R_(j), N(R_(k))C(O)R_(j), N(R_(k))C(O)N(R_(j)), S(O)_(r1)R_(k) (where r₁ is 0, 1 or 2), SO₂N(R_(j))R_(k), N(R_(j))SO₂R_(k) or (CH₂)_(v)NR_(j)R_(k) (where v is 1, 2 or 3); wherein R_(j) and R_(k) are each independently selected from hydrogen or (1-4C)alkyl; and wherein said (1-4C)alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, heterocycyl or cycloalkyl is optionally substituted by one or more substituents selected from halo, (1-4C)alkyl, (1-4C)alkoxy, (1-4C)haloalkyl, (1-4C)haloalkoxy, amino, cyano, nitro, phenyl, (2-4C)alkynyl, NR_(j1)R_(k1), OR_(j1), C(O)R_(j1), C(O)OR_(j1), OC(O)R_(j1), C(O)N(R_(k1))R_(j1), N(R_(k1))C(O)R_(j1), S(O)_(r2)R_(h) (where r₂ is 0, 1 or 2), SO₂N(R_(j1))R_(k1), N(R_(j))SO₂R_(k1) or (CH₂)_(v1)NR_(j1)R_(k1) (where v₁ is 1, 2 or 3); and wherein R_(j1) and R_(k1) are each independently selected from hydrogen or (1-4C)alkyl; and

R³ is selected from halo, (1-4C)alkyl, (1-4C)alkoxy, (1-4C)haloalkyl, (1-4C)haloalkoxy, amino, cyano, nitro, (2-4C)alkynyl, NR_(l)R_(m), OR_(l), C(O)R_(l), C(O)OR_(l), OC(O)R_(l), C(O)N(R_(m))R_(l), N(R_(m))C(O)R_(l), or (CH₂)_(y)NR_(l)R_(m) (where y is 1, 2 or 3); wherein said (1-4C)alkyl is optionally substituted by one or more substituents selected from amino, hydroxy, (1-2C)alkoxy or halo; and wherein R_(l) and R_(m) are each independently selected from hydrogen or (1-4C)alkyl.

Additional examples of other RET kinase inhibitors include those described in International Publication No. WO2017178844, which is hereby incorporated by reference. For example, in some embodiments, the other RET inhibitor is a compound of Formula (V) or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

HET is selected from one of the following:

wherein

denotes the point of attachment;

R¹ is selected from hydrogen, (1-4C)haloalkyl, (1-4C)haloalkoxy or a group of the formula: -L-Y-Q

wherein:

-   -   L is absent or (1-5C)alkylene optionally substituted by one or         more substituents selected from (1-2C)alkyl or oxo;     -   Y is absent or O, S, SO, SO₂, N(R_(a)), C(O), C(O)O, OC(O),         C(O)N(R_(a)), N(R_(a))C(O), N(R_(a))C(O)N(R_(b)), N(R_(a))C(O)O,         OC(O)N(R_(a)), S(O)₂N(R_(a)), or N(R_(a))SO₂, wherein R_(a) and         R_(b) are each independently selected from hydrogen or         (1-4C)alkyl; and     -   Q is hydrogen, (1-6C)alkyl, (2-6C)alkenyl, (2-6C)alkynyl, aryl,         (3-10C)cycloalkyl, (3-10C)cycloalkenyl, heteroaryl or         heterocyclyl; wherein Q is optionally further substituted by one         or more substituent groups independently selected from         (1-4C)alkyl, halo, (1-4C)haloalkyl, (1-4C)haloalkoxy, amino,         (1-4C)aminoalkyl, cyano, hydroxy, carboxy, carbamoyl,         sulphamoyl, mercapto, ureido, NR_(c)R_(d), OR_(c), C(O)R_(c),         C(O)OR_(c), OC(O)R_(c), C(O)N(R_(d))R_(c), N(R_(d))C(O)R_(c),         S(O)_(y)R_(c) (where y is 0, 1 or 2), SO₂N(R_(d))R_(c),         N(R_(d))SO₂R_(c), Si(R_(d))(R_(c))R_(e) or (CH₂)_(z)NR_(c)R_(d)         (where z is 1, 2 or 3); wherein R_(c), R_(d) and R_(e) are each         independently selected from hydrogen, (1-6C)alkyl or         (3-6C)cycloalkyl; or R, and R_(d) can be linked such that,         together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, they         form a 4-7 membered heterocyclic ring which is optionally         substituted by one or more substituents selected from         (1-4C)alkyl, halo, (1-4C)haloalkyl, (1-4C)haloalkoxy,         (1-4C)alkoxy, (1-4C)alkylamino, amino, cyano or hydroxyl; or     -   Q is optionally substituted by a group of the formula:         -L₁-L_(Q1)-Z₁         -   wherein:     -   L¹ is absent or (1-3C)alkylene optionally substituted by one or         more substituents selected from (1-2C)alkyl or oxo;     -   L_(Q1) is absent or selected from O, S, SO, SO₂, N(R_(f)), C(O),         C(O)O, OC(O), C(O)N(R_(f)), N(R_(f))C(O), N(R_(g))C(O)N(R_(f)),         N(R_(f))C(O)O, OC(O)N(R_(f)), S(O)₂N(R_(f)), or N(R_(f))SO₂,         wherein R_(f) and R_(g) are each independently selected from         hydrogen or (1-2C)alkyl; and     -   Z₁ is hydrogen, (1-6C)alkyl, aryl, aryl(1-2C)alkyl,         (3-8C)cycloalkyl, (3-8C)cycloalkenyl, heteroaryl or         heterocyclyl; wherein Z₁ is optionally substituted by one or         more substituents selected from (1-4C)alkyl, halo,         (1-4C)haloalkyl, (1-4C)haloalkoxy, (1-4C)alkoxy,         (1-4C)alkylamino, amino, cyano, hydroxy, carboxy, carbamoyl,         sulphamoyl, mercapto, ureido, aryl, heteroaryl, heterocycyl,         (3-6C)cycloalkyl, NR_(h)R_(i), OR_(h), C(O)R_(h), C(O)OR_(h),         OC(O)R_(h), C(O)N(R_(i))R_(h), N(R_(i))C(O)R_(h), S(O)_(ya)R_(h)         (where y^(a) is 0, 1 or 2), SO₂N(R_(i))R_(h), N(R_(i))SO₂R_(h)         or (CH₂)_(za)NR_(i)R_(h) (where z^(a) is 1, 2 or 3); wherein         R_(h) and R_(i) are each independently selected from hydrogen,         (1-4C)alkyl or (3-6C)cycloalkyl;

R_(1a) and R_(1b) are each selected from hydrogen, (1-4C)alkyl, halo, (1-4C)haloalkyl, (1-4C)haloalkoxy, (1-4C)alkoxy, (1-4C)alkylamino, amino, cyano, hydroxy, carboxy, carbamoyl, sulphamoyl or mercapto;

W is selected from O, S or NR_(j), wherein R_(j) is selected from H or (1-2C)alkyl;

X₁ and X₂ are each independently selected from N or CR_(k);

wherein

-   -   R_(k) is selected from hydrogen, halo, (1-4C)alkyl,         (1-4C)alkoxy, amino, (1-4C)alkylamino, (1-4C)dialkylamino,         cyano, (2C)alkynyl, C(O)R_(k1), C(O)OR_(k1), OC(O)R_(k1),         C(O)N(R_(k2))R_(k1), N(R_(k2))C(O)R_(k1), S(O)_(yb)R_(k1) (where         y^(b) is 0, 1 or 2), SO₂N(R_(k2))R_(k1), N(R_(k2))SO₂R_(k1) or         (CH₂)_(zb)NR_(k1)R_(k2) (where z^(b) is 1, 2 or 3); wherein said         (1-4C)alkyl is optionally substituted by one or more         substituents selected from amino, hydroxy, (1-2C)alkoxy or halo;         and     -   R_(k1) and R_(k2) are each independently selected from hydrogen         or (1-4C)alkyl; X₃ is selected from N or CR_(m);

wherein

-   -   R_(m) is selected from hydrogen, halo, (1-4C)alkyl,         (1-4C)alkoxy, amino, (1-4C)alkylamino, (1-4C)dialkylamino,         cyano, (2C)alkynyl, C(O)R_(m1), C(O)OR_(m1), OC(O)R_(m1),         C(O)N(R_(m2))R_(m1), N(R_(m2))C(O)R_(m1), S(O)_(yc)R_(m1) (where         y^(c) is 0, 1 or 2), SO₂N(R_(m2))R_(m1), N(R_(m2))SO₂R_(m1) or         (CH₂)_(zc)NR_(m1)R_(m2) (where zc is 1, 2 or 3); wherein said         (1-4C)alkyl is optionally substituted by one or more         substituents selected from amino, hydroxy, (1-2C)alkoxy or halo;         and     -   R_(m1) and R_(m2) are each independently selected from hydrogen         or (1-4C)alkyl;

R_(o) is selected from halo, (1-4C)alkyl, (1-4C)alkoxy, amino, (1-4C)alkylamino, (1-4C)dialkylamino, cyano, (2C)alkynyl, C(O)R_(o1), C(O)OR_(o1), OC(O)R_(o1), C(O)N(R_(o2))R_(o1), N(R_(o2))C(O)R_(o1), S(O)_(yd)R_(o1) (where y^(d) is 0, 1 or 2), SO₂N(R_(o2))R_(o1), N(R_(o2))SO₂R_(o1) or (CH₂)_(zd)NR_(o1)R_(o2) (where z^(d) is 1, 2 or 3); wherein said (1-4C)alkyl is optionally substituted by one or more substituents selected from amino, hydroxy, (1-2C)alkoxy or halo; and

R_(o1) and R_(o2) are each independently selected from hydrogen or (1-4C)alkyl;

R₂ is selected from hydrogen, (1-4C)alkyl or a group of the formula: -L₂-Y₂-Q₂

wherein:

-   -   L₂ is absent or (1-3C)alkylene optionally substituted by one or         more substituents selected from (1-2C)alkyl or oxo;     -   Y₂ is absent or C(O), C(O)O, C(O)N(R_(p)), wherein R_(p) is         selected from hydrogen or (1-4C)alkyl; and     -   Q₂ is hydrogen, (1-6C)alkyl, aryl, (3-8C)cycloalkyl,         (3-8C)cycloalkenyl, heteroaryl or heterocyclyl; wherein Q₂ is         optionally further substituted by one or more substituent groups         independently selected from (1-4C)alkyl, halo, (1-4C)haloalkyl,         (1-4C)haloalkoxy, amino, cyano, hydroxy, carboxy, carbamoyl,         sulphamoyl, NR_(q)R_(r), OR_(q), wherein R_(q) and R_(r) are         each independently selected from hydrogen, (1-4C)alkyl or         (3-6C)cycloalkyl; R₃ is selected from a group of the formula:         —Y₃-Q₃

wherein:

-   -   Y₃ is C(O), C(O)N(R_(y)), C(O)N(R_(y))O, N(R_(y))(O)C, C(O)O,         OC(O), N(R_(y))C(O)N(R_(y1)), SO₂N(R_(y)), N(R_(y))SO₂,         oxazolyl, triazolyl, oxadiazolyl, thiazolyl, imidazolyl,         thiadiazolyl, pyridinyl, pyrazolyl, pyrrolyl or tetrazolyl,         wherein R_(y) and R_(y1) are independently selected from         hydrogen or (1-2C)alkyl; and     -   Q₃ is hydrogen, (1-6C)alkyl, aryl, aryl(1-2C)alkyl,         (3-8C)cycloalkyl, (3-8C)cycloalkenyl, heteroaryl or         heterocyclyl; wherein Q₃ is optionally further substituted by         one or more substituent groups independently selected from         (1-4C)alkyl, halo, (1-4C)haloalkyl, (1-4C)haloalkoxy, amino,         cyano, hydroxy, carboxy, carbamoyl, sulphamoyl, NR_(z)R_(aa),         OR_(z), wherein R_(z) and R_(aa) are each independently selected         from hydrogen, (1-4C)alkyl or (3-6C)cycloalkyl; or Q₃ is         optionally substituted by a group of the formula:         -L₄-L_(Q4)-Z₄     -   wherein:

L₄ is absent or (1-3C)alkylene optionally substituted by one or more substituents selected from (1-2C)alkyl or oxo;

L_(Q4) is absent or selected from or O, S, SO, SO₂, N(R_(ab)), C(O), C(O)O, OC(O), C(O)N(R_(ab)), N(R_(ab))C(O), N(R_(ac))C(O)N(R_(ab)), N(R_(ab))C(O)O, OC(O)N(R_(ab)), S(O)₂N(R_(ab)), or N(R_(ab))SO₂, wherein R_(ab) and R_(ac) are each independently selected from hydrogen or (1-2C)alkyl; and

Z₄ is hydrogen, (1-6C)alkyl, aryl, aryl(1-2C)alkyl, (3-8C)cycloalkyl, (3-8C)cycloalkenyl, heteroaryl or heterocyclyl; wherein Z₄ is optionally substituted by one or more substituents selected from (1-4C)alkyl, halo, (1-4C)haloalkyl, (1-4C)haloalkoxy, (1-4C)alkoxy, (1-4C)alkylamino, amino, cyano, hydroxy, carboxy, carbamoyl, sulphamoyl, mercapto, ureido, aryl, heteroaryl, heterocycyl, (3-6C)cycloalkyl, NR_(ad)R_(ae), OR_(ad), C(O)R_(ad), C(O)OR_(ad), OC(O)R_(ad), C(O)N(R_(ae))R_(ad), N(R_(ae))C(O)R_(ad), S(O)_(ye)R_(ad) (where y^(e) is 0, 1 or 2), SO₂N(R_(ae))R_(ad), N(R_(ae))SO₂R_(ad) or (CH₂)_(ze)NR_(ad)R_(ae) (where z^(e) is 1, 2 or 3); wherein R_(ad) and R_(ae) are each independently selected from hydrogen, (1-4C)alkyl or (3-6C)cycloalkyl; or

Q₃ and R_(y) are linked such that, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, they form a 4-7 membered heterocyclic ring which is optionally substituted by one or more substituents selected from (1-4C)alkyl, halo, (1-4C)haloalkyl, (1-4C)haloalkoxy, (1-4C)alkoxy, (1-4C)alkylamino, amino, cyano or hydroxyl;

with the proviso that only one or two of X₁, X₂ or X₃ can be N.

Additional examples of other RET kinase inhibitors include those described in International Publication No. WO 2017145050, which is hereby incorporated by reference. For example, in some embodiments, the other RET has the Formula (VI) or is a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

Additional examples of other RET kinase inhibitors include those described in International Publication No. WO 2016038552 is hereby incorporated by reference. For example, in some embodiments, the other RET has the Formula (VII), or the Formula (VIII), or is a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

Additional exemplary RET inhibitors include compounds having the structural formula (IX), as described in PCT Application Publication No. WO2018189553(A1), incorporated herein by reference:

wherein:

-   -   HET is selected from one of the following:

-   -   wherein

denotes the point of attachment;

R¹ is selected from hydrogen, (1-4C)haloalkyl, (1-4C)haloalkoxy or a group of the formula: -L-Y-Q

wherein:

L is absent or (1-5C)alkylene optionally substituted by one or more substituents selected from (1-2C)alkyl or oxo;

Y is absent or O, S, SO, SO₂, N(R_(a)), C(O), C(O)O, OC(O), C(O)N(R_(a)), N(R_(a))C(O), N(R_(a))C(O)N(R_(b)), N(R_(a))C(O)O, OC(O)N(R_(a)), S(O)₂N(R_(a)), or N(R_(a))SO₂, wherein R_(a) and R_(b) are each independently selected from hydrogen or (1-4C)alkyl; and

Q is hydrogen, (1-6C)alkyl, (2-6C)alkenyl, (2-6C)alkynyl, aryl, (3-10C)cycloalkyl, (3-10C)cycloalkenyl, heteroaryl or heterocyclyl;

wherein Q is optionally further substituted by one or more substituent groups independently selected from (1-4C)alkyl, halo, (1-4C)haloalkyl, (1-4C)haloalkoxy, amino, (1-4C)aminoalkyl, cyano, hydroxy, carboxy, carbamoyl, sulphamoyl, mercapto, ureido, NR_(c)R_(d), OR_(c), C(O)R_(c), C(O)OR_(c), OC(O)R_(c), C(O)N(R_(d))R_(c), N(R_(d))C(O)R_(c), S(O)_(y)R_(c) (where y is 0, 1 or 2), SO₂N(R_(d))R_(c), N(R_(d))SO₂R_(c), Si(R_(d))(R_(c))R_(e) or (CH₂)_(z)NR_(d)R_(c) (where z is 1, 2 or 3); wherein R_(c), R_(d) and R_(e) are each independently selected from hydrogen, (1-6C)alkyl or (3-6C)cycloalkyl; or R_(e) and R_(d) can be linked such that, together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached, they form a 4-7 membered heterocyclic ring which is optionally substituted by one or more substituents selected from (1-4C)alkyl, halo, (1-4C)haloalkyl, (1-4C)haloalkoxy, (1-4C)alkoxy, (1-4C)alkylamino, amino, cyano or hydroxy; or

-   -   Q is optionally substituted by a group of the formula:         -L₁-L_(Q1)-Z₁     -   wherein:     -   L₁ is absent or (1-3C)alkylene optionally substituted by one or         more substituents selected from (1-2C)alkyl or oxo;     -   L_(Q1) is absent or selected from or O, S, SO, SO₂, N(R_(f)),         C(O), C(O)O, OC(O), C(O)N(R_(f)), N(R_(f))C(O),         N(R_(g))C(O)N(R_(f)),     -   N(R_(f))C(O)O, OC(O)N(R_(f)), S(O)₂N(R_(f)), or N(R_(f))SO₂,         wherein R_(f) and R_(g) are each independently selected from         hydrogen or (1-2C)alkyl; and

Z₁ is hydrogen, (1-6C)alkyl, aryl, aryl(1-2C)alkyl, (3-8C)cycloalkyl, (3-8C)cycloalkenyl, heteroaryl or heterocyclyl; wherein Z₁ is optionally substituted by one or more substituents selected from (1-4C)alkyl, halo, (1-4C)haloalkyl, (1-4C)haloalkoxy, (1-4C)alkoxy, (1-4C)alkylamino, amino, cyano, hydroxy, carboxy, carbamoyl, sulphamoyl, mercapto, ureido, aryl, heteroaryl, heterocycyl, (3-6C)cycloalkyl, NR_(h)R^(i), OR_(h), C(O)R_(h), C(O)OR_(h), OC(O)R_(h), C(O)N(R_(i))R_(h), N(R_(i))C(O)R_(h), S(O)_(y)R_(h) (where y is 0, 1 or 2), SO₂N(R_(i))R_(h), N(R_(i))SO₂R_(h) or (CH₂)_(z)NR_(i)R_(h) (where z is 1, 2 or 3); wherein R_(h) and R_(i) are each independently selected from hydrogen, (1-4C)alkyl or (3-6C)cycloalkyl;

R_(1a) and R_(1b) are each selected from H, (1-4C)alkyl, halo, (1-4C)haloalkyl, (1-4C)haloalkoxy, (1-4C)alkoxy, (1-4C)alkylamino, amino, cyano, hydroxy, carboxy, carbamoyl, sulphamoyl or mercapto;

W is selected from 0, S, or NR¹, wherein R¹ is selected from H or (1-2C)alkyl;

bonds a, b, c and d are independently selected from a single or double bond;

X₁ and X₂ are each independently selected from N or CR_(j) when bond a is a double bond, or NR_(k) or CR_(i)R_(k) when bond a is a single bond;

wherein

R_(j) is selected from hydrogen, halo, (1-4C)alkyl, (1-4C)alkoxy, amino, (1-4C)alkylamino, (1-4C)dialkylamino, cyano, (2C)alkynyl, C(O)R_(j1), C(O)OR_(j1), OC(O)R_(j1), C(O)N(R_(j2))R_(j1), N(R_(j2))C(O)R_(j1), S(O)R_(j1) (where y is 0, 1 or 2), SO₂N(R_(j2))R_(j1), N(R_(j2))SO₂R_(j1) or (CH₂)_(z)NR_(j1)R_(j2) (where z is 1, 2 or 3); wherein said (1-4C)alkyl is optionally substituted by one or more substituents selected from amino, hydroxy, (1-2C)alkoxy or halo;

R_(k) and R_(j) are independently selected from hydrogen or (1-4C)alkyl; and

R_(j1) and R_(j2) are each independently selected from hydrogen or (1-4C)alkyl;

X₃ is selected from N or CR₁ when bond b is a double bond, or NR_(m) or CR_(l)R_(m) when bond

b is a single bond;

wherein

R¹ is selected from hydrogen, halo, (1-4C)alkyl, (1-4C)alkoxy, amino, (1-4C)alkylamino, (1-4C)dialkylamino, cyano, (2C)alkynyl, C(O)R₁₁, C(O)OR₁₁, OC(O)R₁₁, C(O)N(R₁₂)R₁₁, N(R₁₂)C(O)R₁₁, S(O)_(y)R₁₁ (where y is 0, 1 or 2), SO₂N(R₁₂)R₁₁, N(R₁₂)SO₂R₁₁ or (CH₂)_(z)NR₁₂R₁₁ (where z is 1, 2 or 3); wherein said (1-4C)alkyl is optionally substituted by one or more substituents selected from amino, hydroxy, (1-2C)alkoxy or halo;

R_(l) and R_(m) are independently selected from hydrogen or (1-4C)alkyl; and

R₁₁ and R₁₂ are each independently selected from hydrogen or (1-4C)alkyl;

X₄ is selected from N or CR_(n) when bond d is a double bond, or NR_(o) or CR_(n)R_(o) when bond d is a single bond;

wherein

R^(n) is selected from hydrogen, halo, (1-4C)alkyl, (1-4C)alkoxy, amino, (1-4C)alkylamino, (1-4C)dialkylamino, cyano, (2C)alkynyl, C(O)R_(n1), C(O)OR_(n1), OC(O)R_(n1), C(O)N(R_(n2))R_(n1), N(R_(n2))C(O)R_(n1), S(O)_(y)R_(n1) (where y is 0, 1 or 2), SO₂N(R_(n2))R_(n1), N(R_(n2))SO₂R_(n1) or (CH₂)_(z)NR_(n1)R_(n2) (where z is 1, 2 or 3); wherein said (1-4C)alkyl is optionally substituted by one or more substituents selected from amino, hydroxy, (1-2C)alkoxy or halo;

R_(n) and R_(o) are independently selected from hydrogen or (1-4C)alkyl; and

R_(n1) and R_(n2) are each independently selected from hydrogen or (1-4C)alkyl;

R² is selected from hydrogen, (1-4C)alkyl or a group of the formula: -L₂-Y₂-Q₂

wherein:

L₂ is absent or (1-3C)alkylene optionally substituted by one or more substituents selected from (1-2C)alkyl or oxo;

Y₂ is absent or C(O), C(O)O, C(O)N(R_(p)), wherein R_(p) is selected from hydrogen or (1-4C)alkyl; and

Q₂ is hydrogen, (1-6C)alkyl, aryl, (3-8C)cycloalkyl, (3-8C)cycloalkenyl, heteroaryl or heterocyclyl; wherein Q₂ is optionally further substituted by one or more substituent groups independently selected from (1-4C)alkyl, halo, (1-4C)haloalkyl, (1-4C)haloalkoxy, amino, cyano, hydroxy, carboxy, carbamoyl, sulphamoyl, NR_(q)R_(r), OR_(q), wherein R_(q) and R_(r) are each independently selected from hydrogen, (1-4C)alkyl or (3-6C)cycloalkyl;

R₃ is selected from a group of the formula: —Y₃-Q₃

wherein:

Y₃ is C(O), C(O)N(R_(s)), N(R_(s))(O)C, C(O)OR_(s), OC(O)CR_(s), triazole, oxadiazole or tetrazole, wherein R_(s) is selected from hydrogen or (1-2C)alkyl; and

Q₃ is hydrogen, (1-6C)alkyl, (1-6C)alkoxy, aryl, aryl(1-2C)alkyl, (3-8C)cycloalkyl, (3-8C)cycloalkenyl, heteroaryl or heterocyclyl; wherein Q₃ is optionally further substituted by one or more substituent groups independently selected from (1-4C)alkyl, halo, (1-4C)haloalkyl, (1-4C)haloalkoxy, amino, cyano, hydroxy, carboxy, carbamoyl, sulphamoyl, NR_(t)R_(u), OR_(t), wherein R_(t) and R_(u) are each independently selected from hydrogen, (1-4C)alkyl or (3-6C)cycloalkyl; or Q₃ is optionally substituted by a group of the formula: -L₄-L_(Q4)-Z₄

-   -   wherein:     -   L₄ is absent or (1-3C)alkylene optionally substituted by one or         more substituents selected from (1-2C)alkyl or oxo;     -   L_(Q4) is absent or selected from or O, S, SO, SO₂, N(R_(v)),         C(O), C(O)O, OC(O), C(O)N(R_(v)), N(R_(v))C(O),         N(R_(w))C(O)N(R_(v)), N(R_(v))C(O)O, OC(O)N(R_(v)),         S(O)₂N(R_(v)), or N(R_(v))SO₂, wherein R_(v) and R_(w) are each         independently selected from hydrogen or (1-2C)alkyl; and

Z₄ is hydrogen, (1-6C)alkyl, aryl, aryl(1-2C)alkyl, (3-8C)cycloalkyl, (3-8C)cycloalkenyl, heteroaryl or heterocyclyl; wherein Z₄ is optionally substituted by one or more substituents selected from (1-4C)alkyl, halo, (1-4C)haloalkyl, (1-4C)haloalkoxy, (1-4C)alkoxy, (1-4C)alkylamino, amino, cyano, hydroxy, carboxy, carbamoyl, sulphamoyl, mercapto, ureido, aryl, heteroaryl, heterocycyl, (3-6C)cycloalkyl, NR_(x)R_(y), OR_(x), C(O)R_(x), C(O)OR_(x), OC(O)R_(x), C(O)N(R_(y))R_(x), N(R_(y))C(O)R_(x), S(O)_(y)R_(x) (where y is 0, 1 or 2), SO₂N(R_(y))R_(x), N(R_(y))SO₂R_(x) or (CH₂)_(z)NR_(x)R_(y) (where z is 1, 2 or 3); wherein R_(x) and R_(y) are each independently selected from hydrogen, (1-4C)alkyl or (3-6C)cycloalkyl;

with the proviso that only one or two of X₁, X₂, X₃ or X₄ can be N.

Additional exemplary RET inhibitors include compounds having the Formula (X), as described in PCT Application Publication No. WO2018017983(A1), incorporated herein by reference:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein: ring A is an aryl or heteroaryl ring; each of X¹ and X² is independently selected from N and C(R⁶); Z is

—CD(R⁵)—, or —CH(R⁵)—, wherein “1” represents a point of attachment to N(R⁸); and “2” represents a point of attachment to ring A; each R¹ and each R⁷ is independently selected from C1-C6 alkyl, C2-C6 alkenyl, C₂-C₆ alkynyl, C₁-C₆ alkoxy, halo, C₁-C₆ heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aryloxy, aralkyl, heterocyclyl, heterocyclylalkyl, nitro, cyano, —C(O)R^(c), —OC(O)R^(c), —C(O)OR^(d), —(C₁-C₆ alkylene)-C(O)R^(c), —SR^(d), —S(O)₂R^(c), —S(O)₂—N(R^(d))(R^(d)), —(C₁-C₆ alkylene)-S(O)₂R^(c), —(C₁-C₆ alkylene)-S(O)₂—N(R^(d))(R^(d)), —N(R^(d))(R^(d)), —C(O)—N(R^(d))(R^(d)), —N(R^(d))—C(O)R^(c), —N(R^(d))—C(O)OR^(c), —(C1-C6 alkylene)-N(R^(d))—C(O)R^(c), —N(R^(d))S(O)₂R^(c), and —P(O)(R^(c))(R^(c)); wherein each of alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, alkoxy, heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aryloxy, aralkyl, heterocyclyl, and heterocyclylalkyl is independently substituted with 0-5 occurrences of R^(a); or two R¹ or two R⁷ are taken together with the carbon atoms to which they are attached form a cycloalkyl or heterocyclyl ring independently substituted with 0-5 occurrences of R^(b); each of R², R³ if present, and R⁴ is independently selected from hydrogen, C₁-C₆ alkyl, C₁-C₆ alkoxy, halo, hydroxyl, cyano, C1-C6 heteroalkyl, and —N(R^(d))(R^(d)); wherein each of alkyl, alkoxy, and heteroalkyl is optionally and independently substituted with 0-5 occurrences of R^(a); each of R⁵ and R⁸ is independently selected from hydrogen, deuterium, C₁-C₆ alkyl, and C₁-C₆ heteroalkyl; wherein each alkyl and heteroalkyl is optionally and independently substituted with 0-5 occurrences of R^(a); each R⁶ is independently selected from hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 alkoxy, halo, cyano, C1-C6 heteroalkyl, and —N(R^(d))(R^(d)); wherein each alkyl, alkoxy, and heteroalkyl is optionally and independently substituted with 0-5 occurrences of R^(a); each R^(a) and each R^(b) is independently selected from C1-C6 alkyl, halo, hydroxyl, C1-C6 heteroalkyl, C₁-C₆ alkoxy, cycloalkyl, heterocyclyl, or cyano, wherein each of alkyl, heteroalkyl, alkoxy, cycloalkyl and heterocyclyl is independently substituted with 0-5 occurrences of R′; each R′ is independently selected from C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 heteroalkyl, halo, hydroxyl, cycloalkyl or cyano; or two R′, together with the atom(s) to which they are attached form a cycloalkyl or heterocyclyl ring; each R is independently selected from hydrogen, hydroxyl, halo, thiol, C1-C6 alkyl, C₁-C₆ thioalkyl, C₁-C₆ alkoxy, C₁-C₆ heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, heterocyclyl, and heterocyclylalkyl, wherein each of alkyl, thioalkyl, alkoxy, heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, heterocyclyl, and heterocyclylalkyl is independently substituted with 0-5 occurrences of R^(a), or two R^(c) together with the atom(s) to which they are attached form a cycloalkyl or heterocyclyl ring independently substituted with 0-5 occurrences of R^(b); each R^(d) is independently selected from hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, heterocyclyl, and heterocyclylalkyl, wherein each of alkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, heteroarylalkyl, heterocyclyl, and heterocyclylalkyl is independently substituted with 0-5 occurrences of R^(a), or two R^(d) together with the atom(s) to which they are attached form a cycloalkyl or heterocyclyl ring independently substituted with 0-5 occurrences of R; m is 0, 1, or 2; and n is 0, 1, 2, or 3.

Exemplary RET inhibitors include compounds having the Formula (XI), as described in PCT Application Publication No. WO2018060714(A1), incorporated herein by reference:

wherein A represents one selected from the following formulae (Ia) to (Id)

wherein R¹ represents a hydrogen atom or a C1-C3 alkyl group, and R² represents a hydrogen atom or a C1-C3 alkyl group, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

Yet other therapeutic agents include RET inhibitors such as those described, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 10,030,005; 10,035,789; 9,988,371; 9,938,274; 9,738,660; 9,801,880; 9,682,083; 9,789,100; 9,550,772; 9,493,455; 9,758,508; 9,604,980; 9,321,772; 9,522,910; 9,669,028; 9,186,318; 8,933,230; 9,505,784; 8,754,209; 8,895,744; 8,629,135; 8,815,906; 8,354,526; 8,741,849; 8,461,161; 8,524,709; 8,129,374; 8,686,005; 9,006,256; 8,399,442; 7,795,273; 7,863,288; 7,465,726; 8,552,002; 8,067,434; 8,198,298; 8,106,069; 6,861,509; 9,150,517; 9,149,464; 8,299,057; and 7,863,288; U.S. Publication Nos. 2018/0244667; 2018/0009818; 2018/0009817; 2017/0283404; 2017/0267661; 2017/0298074; 2017/0114032; 2016/0009709; 2015/0272958; 2015/0238477; 2015/0099721; 2014/0371219; 2014/0137274; 2013/0079343; 2012/0283261; 2012/0225057; 2012/0065233; 2013/0053370; 2012/0302567; 2011/0189167; 2016/0046636; 2013/0012703; 2011/0281841; 2011/0269739; 2012/0271048; 2012/0277424; 2011/0053934; 2011/0046370; 2010/0280012; 2012/0070410; 2010/0081675; 2010/0075916; 2011/0212053; 2009/0227556; 2009/0209496; 2009/0099167; 2010/0209488; 2009/0012045; 2013/0303518; 2008/0234267; 2008/0199426; 2010/0069395; 2009/0312321; 2010/0173954; 2011/0195072; 2010/0004239; 2007/0149523; 2017/0281632; 2017/0226100; 2017/0121312; 2017/0096425; 2017/0044106; 2015/0065468; 2009/0069360; 2008/0275054; 2007/0117800; 2008/0234284; 2008/0234276; 2009/0048249; 2010/0048540; 2008/0319005; 2009/0215761; 2008/0287427; 2006/0183900; 2005/0222171; 2005/0209195; 2008/0262021; 2008/0312192; 2009/0143399; 2009/0130229; 2007/0265274; 2004/0185547; and 2016/0176865; and International Publication Nos. WO 2018/136796; WO 2018/189553; WO 2018/017983; WO 2018/035072; WO 2018/049127; WO 2018/060714; WO 2018/102455; WO 2018/149382; WO 2018/183586; WO 2017/079140; WO 2017/145050; WO 2017/097697; WO 2017/049462; WO 2017/043550; WO 2017/027883; WO 2017/013160; WO 2017/009644; WO 2016/168992; WO 2016/137060; WO 2016/127074; WO 2016/075224; WO 2016/038552; WO 2015/079251; WO 2014/086284; WO 2013/042137; WO 2013/036232; WO 2013/016720; WO 2012/053606; WO 2012/047017; WO 2007/109045; WO 2009/042646; WO 2009/023978; WO 2009/017838; WO 2017/178845; WO 2017/178844; WO 2017/146116; WO 2017/026718; WO 2016/096709; WO 2007/057397; WO 2007/057399; WO 2007/054357; WO 2006/130613; WO 2006/089298; WO 2005/070431; WO 2003/020698; WO 2001/062273; WO 2001/016169; WO 1997/044356; WO 2007/087245; WO 2005/044835; WO 2014/075035; and WO 2016/038519; and J. Med. Chem. 2012, 55 (10), 4872-4876, all of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties.

In some embodiments, a RET inhibitor (e.g., a first RET inhibitor or a second RET inhibitor) is a compound of the Formula II:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, wherein:

X is CH, CCH₃, CF, CCl or N;

X² is CH, CF or N;

X³ is CH, CF or N;

X⁴ is CH, CF or N;

wherein zero, one or two of X¹, X², X³ and X⁴ is N;

A is H, C1, CN, Br, CH₃, CH₂CH₃ or cyclopropyl;

B is hetAr¹;

hetAr¹ is a 5-membered heteroaryl ring having 1-3 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N, S and O, wherein said heteroaryl ring is optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, C1-C6 alkyl, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, difluoroC1-C6 alkyl, trifluoroC1-C6 alkyl, cyanoC1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkoxy)CH₂C(═O)—, (C1-C4 alkoxy)C(═O)C1-C3 alkyl, C3-C6 cycloalkyl, (R^(a)R^(b)N)C1-C6 alkyl, (R^(a)R^(b)N)C(═O)C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C6 alkylSO2)C1-C6 alkyl, hetCyc^(a), and 4-methoxybenzyl;

R^(a) and R^(b) are independently H or C1-C6 alkyl;

hetCyc^(a) is a 4-6 membered heterocyclic ring having a ring heteroatom selected from N and O, wherein said heterocyclic ring is optionally substituted with halogen, C1-C6 alkyl, fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, difluoroC1-C6 alkyl, trifluoroC1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl, di(C1-C3 alkyl)NCH₂C(═O), (C1-C6 alkoxy)C(═O) or (C1-C6 alkoxy)CH₂C(═O);

D is hetCyc¹, hetCyc², hetCyc³ or hetCyc⁹;

hetCyc¹ is a 4-6 membered heterocyclic ring having 1-2 ring atoms selected from N and O, wherein said heterocyclic ring is optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of C1-C3 alkyl, fluoroC1-C3 alkyl, difluoroC1-C3 alkyl, trifluoroC1-C3 alkyl and OH, or said heterocyclic ring is substituted with a C3-C6 cycloalkylidene ring, or said heterocyclic ring is substituted with an oxo group;

hetCyc² is a 7-8 membered bridged heterocyclic ring having 1-3 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N and O, wherein said heterocyclic ring is optionally substituted with C1-C3 alkyl;

hetCyc³ is a 7-11 membered heterospirocyclic ring having 1-2 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N and O, wherein said ring is optionally substituted with C1-C3 alkyl;

hetCyc⁹ is a fused 9-10 membered heterocyclic ring having 1-3 ring nitrogen atoms and optionally substituted with oxo;

E is

-   -   (a) hydrogen,     -   (b) OH,     -   (c) R^(a)R^(b)N—, wherein R^(a) is H or C1-C6 alkyl and R^(b) is         H, C1-C6 alkyl or phenyl;     -   (d) C1-C6 alkyl optionally substituted with one to three         fluoros,     -   (e) hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl- optionally substituted with one to three         fluoros,     -   (f) C1-C6 alkoxy optionally substituted with one to three         fluoros,     -   (g) hydroxy(C1-C6 alkoxy) optionally substituted with one to         three fluoros,     -   (h) (C1-C6 alkoxy)hydroxy C1-C6 alkyl- optionally substituted         with one to three fluoros,     -   (i) (C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)— optionally substituted with one to three         fluoros,     -   (j) (hydroxy C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)— optionally substituted with one         to three fluoros,     -   (k) (C1-C6 alkoxy)C(═O)—,     -   (l) (C1-C6 alkoxy)(C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)—,     -   (m) HC(═O)—,     -   (n) Cyc¹,     -   (o) Cyc¹C(═O)—,     -   (p) Cyc¹(C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)— wherein said alkyl portion is         optionally substituted with one or more groups independently         selected from the group consisting of OH, fluoro, C1-C3 alkoxy         and R^(c)R^(d)N—, where R^(c) and R^(d) are independently H or         C1-C6 alkyl,     -   (q) hetCyc⁴,     -   (r) hetCyc⁴C(═O)—,     -   (s) hetCyc⁴(C1-C3 alkyl)C(═O)—,     -   (t) (hetCyc⁴)C(═O)C1-C2 alkyl-,     -   (u) hetCyc⁴C(═O)NH—,     -   (v) Ar²,     -   (w) Ar²C(═O)—,     -   (x) Ar²C1-C6 alkyl-,     -   (y) (Ar²)hydroxy C2-C6 alkyl-,     -   (z) Ar²(C1-C3 alkyl)C(═O)— wherein said alkyl portion is         optionally substituted with one or two groups independently         selected from the group consisting of OH, C1-C6 alkyl         (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl,         C1-C6 alkoxy and R′R^(f)N—, where R^(e) and R^(f) are         independently H or C1-C6 alkyl, or R^(e) and R^(f) together with         the nitrogen to which they are attached form a 5-6 membered         azacyclic ring optionally having an additional ring heteroatom         selected from N and O,     -   (aa) hetAr²C(═O)—,     -   (bb) (hetAr²)hydroxyC2-C6 alkyl-,     -   (cc) hetAr²(C1-C3 alkyl)C(═O)—, wherein said alkyl portion is         optionally substituted with one or two groups independently         selected from the group consisting of OH, C1-C6 alkyl,         hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 alkoxy and R′R^(f)N—, wherein R^(e)         and R are independently H or C1-C6 alkyl or R^(e) and R together         with the nitrogen to which they are attached form a 5-6 membered         azacyclic ring optionally having an additional ring heteroatom         selected from N and O,     -   (dd) R¹R²NC(═O)—,     -   (ee) R¹R²N(C1-C3 alkyl)C(═O)—, wherein said alkyl portion is         optionally substituted with phenyl,     -   (ff) R¹R²NC(═O)C1-C2 alkyl-,     -   (gg) R¹R²NC(═O)NH—,     -   (hh) CH₃SO₂(C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)—,     -   (ii) (C1-C6 alkyl)SO₂—,     -   (jj) (C3-C6 cycloalkyl)CH₂SO₂—,     -   (kk) hetCyc⁵-SO₂—,     -   (ll) R⁴R⁵NSO₂—,     -   (mm) R⁶C(═O)NH—,     -   (nn) hetCyc⁶,     -   (oo) hetAr²C1-C6 alkyl-,     -   (pp) (hetCyc⁴)C1-C6 alkyl-,     -   (qq) (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl- optionally substituted with 1-3         fluoros,     -   (rr) (C3-C6 cycloalkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl-,     -   (ss) (C3-C6 cycloalkyl)C1-C6 alkyl-, wherein said cycloalkyl is         optionally substituted with 1-2 fluoros,     -   (tt) (R^(g)R^(h)N)C1-C6 alkyl-, wherein R^(g) and R^(h) are         independently H or C1-C6 alkyl,     -   (uu) Ar²—O—,     -   (vv) (C1-C6 alkylSO2)C1-C6 alkyl-,     -   (ww) (C1-C6 alkoxy)C(═O)NHC1-C6 alkyl-,     -   (xx) (C3-C6 cycloalkoxy)C(═O)—,     -   (yy) (C3-C6 cycloalkyl)SO₂—, wherein said cycloalkyl is         optionally substituted with C1-C6 alkyl,     -   (zz) Ar⁴CH₂OC(═O)—,     -   (aaa) (N—(C1-C3 alkyl)pyridinonyl)C1-C3 alkyl-, and     -   (bbb) (Ar⁴SO₂)C1-C6 alkyl-;

Cyc¹ is a C3-C6 cycloalkyl, wherein (a) said cycloalkyl is optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of OH, halogen, C1-C6 alkoxy, CN, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl, and C1-C6 alkyl optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros, or (b) said cycloalkyl is substituted with phenyl, wherein said phenyl is optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, C1-C3 alkyl, C1-C3 alkoxy and CF, or (c) said cycloalkyl is substituted with a 5-6 membered heteroaryl ring having 1-3 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N and O, wherein said heteroaryl ring is optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, C1-C3 alkyl, C1-C3 alkoxy and CF₃;

Ar² is phenyl optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 alkoxy (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, difluoroC1-C6 alkyl, trifluoroC1-C6 alkyl, CN, a 5-6 membered heterocyclic ring having 1-2 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N and O, and R^(i)R^(j)N— wherein R^(i) and R^(j) are independently H or C1-C6 alkyl;

hetAr² is a 5-6 membered heteroaryl ring having 1-3 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N, O and S and optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 alkoxy (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, difluoroC1-C6 alkyl, trifluoroC1-C6 alkyl, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, (C3-C6)cycloalkyl, (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl, CN, OH, and R′R″N—, wherein R′ and R″ are independently H or C1-C3 alkyl;

hetCyc⁴ is (a) a 4-6 membered heterocyclic ring having 1-2 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N, O and S wherein said S is optionally oxidized to SO₂, (b) a 7-8 membered bridged heterocyclic ring having 1-2 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N and O, (c) a 6-12 membered fused bicyclic heterocyclic ring having 1-2 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N and O and optionally independently substituted with 1-2 C1-C6 alkyl substituents, or (d) a 7-10 membered spirocyclic heterocyclic ring having 1-2 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N and O, wherein each of said heterocyclic rings is optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, OH, CN, C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), C1-C6 alkoxy, (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl, (C3-C6)cycloalkyl, (C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)—, a 5-6 membered heterocyclic ring having 1-2 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N and O, and phenyl wherein said phenyl is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from halogen, C1-C6 alkyl and C1-C6 alkoxy;

hetCyc⁵ is a 5-6 membered heterocyclic ring having a ring heteroatom selected from O and N;

hetCyc⁶ is a 5 membered heterocyclic ring having one or two ring heteroatoms independently selected from N and O, wherein said ring is substituted with oxo and wherein said ring is further optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of OH and C1-C6 alkyl;

R¹ is H, C1-C6 alkyl or (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl;

R² is H, C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), Cyc³, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), C1-C6 alkoxy (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), (C1-C6 alkoxy)C(═O), hetCyc⁷, Ar³, Ar³C1-C3 alkyl-, hydroxyC1-C6 alkoxy or (3-6C cycloalkyl)CH₂O—;

Cyc³ is a 3-6 membered carbocyclic ring optionally substituted with 1-2 groups independently selected from the group consisting of C1-C6 alkoxy, OH and halogen;

hetCyc⁷ is a 5-6 membered heterocyclic ring having a ring heteroatom selected from O and N wherein said ring is optionally substituted with C1-C6 alkyl;

Ar³ is phenyl optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from halogen, C1-C3 alkyl, C1-C3 alkoxy, fluoroC1-C3 alkyl, difluoroC1-C3 alkyl and trifluoroC1-C3 alkyl;

R⁴ and R⁵ are independently H or C1-C6 alkyl;

R⁶ is C1-C6 alkyl, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 alkoxy, (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl, phenyl or hetCyc⁸;

hetCyc⁸ is a 5-6 membered heterocyclic ring having a ring heteroatom selected from O and N, wherein said heterocyclic ring is optionally substituted with C1-C6 alkyl; and

Ar⁴ is phenyl optionally substituted with one or more halogens.

In some embodiments, a RET inhibitor (e.g., a first RET inhibitor or a second RET inhibitor) is a compound of the Formula III:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, wherein:

X¹ is CH or N;

X² is CH or N;

X³ is CH or N;

X⁴ is CH or N;

wherein one or two of X¹, X², X³ and X⁴ is N;

A is CN;

B is hetAr¹;

hetAr¹ is a 5-membered heteroaryl ring having 1-3 ring nitrogen atoms, wherein said heteroaryl ring is optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, C1-C6 alkyl, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, difluoroC1-C6 alkyl, trifluoroC1-C6 alkyl, cyanoC1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C4 alkoxy)CH₂C(═O)—, (C1-C4 alkoxy)C(═O)C1-C3 alkyl, C3-C6 cycloalkyl, (R^(a)R^(b)N)C1-C6 alkyl, (R^(a)R^(b)N)C(═O)C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C6 alkylSO2)C1-C6 alkyl, and 4-methoxybenzyl;

R^(a) and R^(b) are independently H or C1-C6 alkyl;

D is hetCyc¹;

hetCyc¹ is a 4-6 membered heterocyclic ring having 1-2 ring nitrogen atoms, wherein said heterocyclic ring is optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of C1-C3 alkyl, fluoroC1-C3 alkyl, difluoroC1-C3 alkyl, trifluoroC1-C3 alkyl and OH, or said heterocyclic ring is substituted with a C3-C6 cycloalkylidene ring, or said heterocyclic ring is substituted with an oxo group;

E is

-   -   (w) Ar²C(═O)—,     -   (x) Ar²C1-C6 alkyl-,     -   (z) Ar²(C1-C3 alkyl)C(═O)— wherein said alkyl portion is         optionally substituted with one or two groups independently         selected from the group consisting of OH, C1-C6 alkyl         (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl,         C1-C6 alkoxy and R′R^(f)N—, where R^(e) and R^(f) are         independently H or C1-C6 alkyl, or R^(e) and R^(f) together with         the nitrogen to which they are attached form a 5-6 membered         azacyclic ring optionally having an additional ring heteroatom         selected from N and O,     -   (cc) hetAr²(C1-C3 alkyl)C(═O)—, wherein said alkyl portion is         optionally substituted with one or two groups independently         selected from the group consisting of OH, C1-C6 alkyl,         hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 alkoxy and R′R^(f)N—, wherein R^(e)         and R^(f) are independently H or C1-C6 alkyl or R^(e) and R^(f)         together with the nitrogen to which they are attached form a 5-6         membered azacyclic ring optionally having an additional ring         heteroatom selected from N and O,     -   (dd) R¹R²NC(═O)—,     -   (oo) hetAr²C1-C6 alkyl-,

Ar² is phenyl optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 alkoxy (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, difluoroC1-C6 alkyl, trifluoroC1-C6 alkyl, CN, a 5-6 membered heterocyclic ring having 1-2 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N and O, and R′RN— wherein R^(i) and R^(j) are independently H or C1-C6 alkyl;

hetAr² is a 5-6 membered heteroaryl ring having 1-3 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N, O and S and optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 alkoxy (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), fluoroC1-C6 alkyl, difluoroC1-C6 alkyl, trifluoroC1-C6 alkyl, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, (C3-C6)cycloalkyl, (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl, CN, OH, and R′R″N—, wherein R′ and R″ are independently H or C1-C3 alkyl;

R¹ is H, C1-C6 alkyl or (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl; and

R² is H, C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), C1-C6 alkoxy (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), (C1-C6 alkoxy)C(═O), hydroxyC1-C6 alkoxy or (3-6C cycloalkyl)CH₂O.

In some embodiments, a RET inhibitor (e.g., a first RET inhibitor or a second RET inhibitor) is selected from the group consisting of: (S)-4-(6-(4-(2-hydroxy-3-phenylpropanoyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-4-(6-(4-(2-(pyridin-2-yl)acetyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(4-(2,6-difluorobenzoyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile 2,2,2-trifluoroacetate; 4-(5-(3-cyano-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-N,N-diethylpiperazine-1-carboxamide; 1-(5-(3-cyano-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-N-(2-methoxy-3-methylbutyl)piperidine-4-carboxamide; 4-(6-(4-(2-(5-fluoropyridin-2-yl)acetyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile bis(2,2,2-trifluoroacetate); 4-(6-(4-(2,6-difluorobenzyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridine-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(4-(2-methoxybenzyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-4-(6-(4-(pyridine-2-ylmethyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof.

In some embodiments, a RET inhibitor (e.g., a first RET inhibitor or a second RET inhibitor) is a compound of the Formula IV:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, wherein:

X¹, X², X³ and X⁴ are independently CH, CF, CCH₃ or N, wherein zero, one or two of X¹, X², X³ and X⁴ is N;

A is H, CN, Cl, CH₃—, CH₃CH₂—, cyclopropyl, —CH₂CN or —CH(CN)CH₃;

B is

-   -   (a) hydrogen,     -   (b) C1-C6 alkyl optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros,     -   (c) hydroxyC2-C6 alkyl-, wherein the alkyl portion is optionally         substituted with 1-3 fluoros or a C3-C6 cycloalkylidene ring,     -   (d) dihydroxyC3-C6 alkyl-, wherein the alkyl portion is         optionally substituted with a C3-C6 cycloalkylidene ring,     -   (e) (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl- optionally substituted with 1-3         fluoros,     -   (f) (R¹R²N)C1-C6 alkyl- wherein said alkyl portion is optionally         substituted with OH and wherein R¹ and R² are independently H or         C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros);     -   (g) hetAr¹C1-C3 alkyl-, wherein hetAr¹ is a 5-6 membered         heteroaryl ring having 1-3 ring heteroatoms independently         selected from N, O and S and is optionally substituted with one         or more independently selected C1-C6 alkyl substituents;     -   (h) (C3-C6 cycloalkyl)C1-C3 alkyl-, wherein said cycloalkyl is         optionally substituted with OH,     -   (i) (hetCyc^(a))C1-C3 alkyl-,     -   (j) hetCyc^(a)-,     -   (k) C3-C6 cycloalkyl-, wherein said cycloalkyl is optionally         substituted with OH,     -   (l) (C1-C4 alkyl)C(═O)O—C1-C6 alkyl-, wherein each of the C1-C4         alkyl and C1-C6 alkyl portions is optionally and independently         substituted with 1-3 fluoros, or     -   (m) (R¹R²N)C(═O)C1-C6 alkyl-, wherein R¹ and R² are         independently H or C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3         fluoros);

hetCyc^(a)- is a 4-6 membered heterocyclic ring having 1-2 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N and O and optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from OH, C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl-, C1-C6 alkoxy, (C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)—, (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl-, and fluoro, or wherein hetCyc^(a) is substituted with oxo;

Ring D is (i) a saturated 4-7 membered heterocyclic ring having two ring nitrogen atoms, (ii) a saturated 7-8 membered bridged heterocyclic ring having two ring nitrogen atoms and optionally having a third ring heteroatom which is oxygen, (iii) a saturated 7-11 membered heterospirocyclic ring having two ring nitrogen atoms, or (iv) a saturated 9-10 membered bicyclic fused heterocyclic ring having two ring nitrogen atoms, wherein each of said rings is optionally substituted with (a) one to four groups independently selected from halogen, OH, C1-C3 alkyl which is optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros, or C1-C3 alkoxy which is optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros, (b) a C3-C6 cycloalkylidene ring, or (c) an oxo group;

E is

-   -   (a) hydrogen,     -   (b) C1-C6 alkyl optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros,     -   (c) (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl- optionally substituted with 1-3         fluoros,     -   (d) (C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)—, wherein said alkyl portion is         optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros or with a R^(g)R^(h)N—         substituent wherein R^(g) and R^(h) are independently H or C1-C6         alkyl,     -   (e) (hydroxyC2-C6 alkyl)C(═O)— optionally substituted with 1-3         fluoros,     -   (f) (C1-C6 alkoxy)C(═O)—,     -   (g) (C3-C6 cycloalkyl)C(═O)—, wherein said cycloalkyl is         optionally substituted with one or more substituents         independently selected from C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 alkoxy, OH, and         (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl-, or said cycloalkyl is substituted         with a 5-6 membered heteroaryl ring having 1-3 ring heteroatoms         independently selected from N and O,     -   (h) Ar¹C1-C6 alkyl-,     -   (i) Ar¹(C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)—, wherein said alkyl portion is         optionally substituted with OH, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl-, C1-C6         alkoxy, R^(m)R^(n)N— or R^(m)R^(n)N—CH₂—, wherein each R^(m) and         R^(n) is independently H or C1-C6 alkyl,     -   (j) hetAr²C1-C6 alkyl-, wherein said alkyl portion is optionally         substituted with 1-3 fluoros,     -   (k) hetAr²(C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)— wherein said alkyl portion is         optionally substituted with OH, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl- or C1-C6         alkoxy,     -   (l) hetAr²C(═O)—,     -   (m) hetCyc¹C(═O)—,     -   (n) hetCyc¹C1-C6 alkyl-,     -   (o) R³R⁴NC(═O)—,     -   (p) Ar¹N(R³)C(═O)—,     -   (q) hetAr²N(R³)C(═O)—,     -   (r) (C1-C6 alkyl)SO₂—, wherein the alkyl portion is optionally         substituted with 1-3 fluoros,     -   (s) Ar¹SO₂—,     -   (t) hetAr²SO₂—,     -   (u) N—(C1-C6 alkyl)pyridinonyl,     -   (v) Ar¹C(═O)—;     -   (w) Ar¹O—C(═O)—,     -   (x) (C3-C6 cycloalkyl)(C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)—,     -   (y) (C3-C6 cycloalkyl)(C1-C6 alkyl)SO₂—, wherein the alkyl         portion is optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros,     -   (z) Ar¹(C1-C6 alkyl)SO₂—,     -   (aa) hetCyc¹-O—C(═O)—,     -   (bb) hetCyc¹CH₂C(═O)—,     -   (cc) hetAr², or     -   (dd) C3-C6 cycloalkyl;

Ar¹ is phenyl optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, CN, C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), C1-C6 alkoxy (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), R^(e)R^(f)N— wherein R^(e) and R^(f) are independently H, C1-C6 alkyl, (R^(p)R^(q)N)C1-C6 alkoxy- wherein R^(p) and R^(q) are independently H or C1-C6 alkyl, and (hetAr^(a))C1-C6 alkyl- wherein hetAr^(a) is a 5-6 membered heteroaryl ring having 1-2 ring nitrogen atoms, or Ar¹ is a phenyl ring fused to a 5-6 membered heterocyclic ring having 1-2 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N and O;

hetAr² is a 5-6 membered heteroaryl ring having 1-3 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N, O and S or a 9-10 membered bicyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-3 ring nitrogen atoms, wherein hetAr² is optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, CN, C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), C1-C6 alkoxy (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl- (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), R^(e)R^(f)N— wherein R^(e) and R are independently H or C1-C6 alkyl, OH, (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkoxy- and C3-C6 cycloalkyl;

hetCyc¹ is a 4-6 membered saturated heterocyclic ring having 1-2 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N, O and S wherein said heterocyclic ring is optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from C1-C6 alkoxy and halogen;

R³ is H or C1-C6 alkyl; and

R⁴ is C1-C6 alkyl.

In some embodiments, a RET inhibitor (e.g., a first RET inhibitor or a second RET inhibitor) is a compound of the Formula V:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt and solvate thereof, wherein:

X¹, X², X³ and X⁴ are independently CH or N, wherein zero, one or two of X¹, X², X³ and X⁴ is N;

A is CN;

B is

-   -   (b) C1-C6 alkyl optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros,     -   (c) hydroxyC2-C6 alkyl-, wherein the alkyl portion is optionally         substituted with 1-3 fluoros or a C3-C6 cycloalkylidene ring,     -   (e) (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl- optionally substituted with 1-3         fluoros,     -   (f) (R′R²N)C1-C6 alkyl-, wherein said alkyl portion is         optionally substituted with OH and wherein R¹ and R² are         independently H or C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3         fluoros);     -   (g) hetAr¹C1-C3 alkyl-, wherein hetAr¹ is a 5-6 membered         heteroaryl ring having 1-3 ring heteroatoms independently         selected from N, O and S and is optionally substituted with one         or more independently selected C1-C6 alkyl substituents; or     -   (i) (hetCyc^(a))C1-C3 alkyl-,

hetCyc^(a)- is a 4-6 membered heterocyclic ring having 1-2 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N and O and optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from OH, C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl-, C1-C6 alkoxy, (C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)—, (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl- and fluoro, or wherein hetCyc^(a) is substituted with oxo;

Ring D is (i) a saturated 4-7 membered heterocyclic ring having two ring nitrogen atoms, or (ii) a saturated 7-9 membered bridged heterocyclic ring having two ring nitrogen atoms and optionally having a third ring heteroatom which is oxygen, wherein each of said rings is optionally substituted with (a) one to four groups independently selected from halogen, OH, C1-C3 alkyl which is optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros, or C1-C3 alkoxy which is optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros, (b) a C3-C6 cycloalkylidene ring, or (c) an oxo group;

E is

-   -   (h) Ar¹C1-C6 alkyl-,     -   (j) hetAr²C1-C6 alkyl-, wherein the alkyl portion is optionally         substituted with 1-3 fluoros, or     -   (l) hetAr²C(═O)—,

Ar¹ is phenyl optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, CN, C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), C1-C6 alkoxy (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), R′R^(f)N— wherein R^(e) and R are independently H or C1-C6 alkyl, (R^(p)R^(q)N)C1-C6 alkoxy- wherein R^(p) and R^(q) are independently H or C1-C6 alkyl, and (hetAr^(a))C1-C6 alkyl- wherein hetAr^(a) is a 5-6 membered heteroaryl ring having 1-2 ring nitrogen atoms, or Ar¹ is a phenyl ring fused to a 5-6 membered heterocyclic ring having 1-2 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N and O; and

hetAr² is a 5-6 membered heteroaryl ring having 1-3 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N, O and S or a 9-10 membered bicyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-3 ring nitrogen atoms, wherein hetAr² is optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, CN, C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), C1-C6 alkoxy (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl- (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), R^(e)R^(f)N— wherein R^(e) and R^(f) are independently H or C1-C6 alkyl, OH, (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkoxy- and C3-C6 cycloalkyl.

In some embodiments, a RET inhibitor (e.g., a first RET inhibitor or a second RET inhibitor) is selected from the group consisting of: 4-(6-(4-benzylpiperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(2-morpholinoethoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxyethoxy)-4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; (R)-6-(2-hydroxypropoxy)-4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(6-(6-methoxynicotinoyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-(dimethylamino)ethoxy)-4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(2-morpholinoethoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-((1-methyl-1H-imidazol-4-yl)methoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; and 6-ethoxy-4-(5-(6-((5-fluoro-6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyrazin-2-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof.

In some embodiments, a RET inhibitor (e.g., a first RET inhibitor or a second RET inhibitor) is a compound of Formula VI:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, wherein:

X¹, X², X³ and X⁴ are independently CH, CCH₃, CF or N, wherein zero, one or two of X¹, X², X³ and X⁴ is N;

A is H, CN, Cl, methyl, ethyl or cyclopropyl;

B is:

-   -   (a) hydrogen,     -   (b) C1-C6 alkyl optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros,     -   (c) hydroxyC2-C6 alkyl- wherein the alkyl portion is optionally         substituted with a C3-C6 cycloalkylidene ring,     -   (d) dihydroxyC3-C6 alkyl- wherein the alkyl portion is         optionally substituted with a C3-C6 cycloalkylidene ring,     -   (e) (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl- optionally substituted with 1-3         fluoros,     -   (f) (R¹R²N)C1-C6 alkyl- where R¹ and R² are independently         selected from H, C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3         fluoros), (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl-, (C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)— and         (C1-C6 alkoxy)C(═O)—;     -   (g) hetAr¹C1-C3 alkyl-, where hetAr¹ is a 5-6 membered         heteroaryl ring having 1-3 ring heteroatoms independently         selected from N, O and S and is optionally substituted with one         or more independently selected C1-C6 alkyl substituents;     -   (h) (C3-C6 cycloalkyl)C1-C3 alkyl-, wherein said cycloalkyl is         optionally substituted with OH,     -   (i) (hetCyc^(a))C1-C3 alkyl-,     -   (j) hetCyc^(a),     -   (k) (R¹R²N)C(═O)C1-C6 alkyl-, where R¹ and R² are independently         selected from H and C1-C6 alkyl;     -   (l) (R¹R²N)C(═O)—, where R¹ and R² are independently selected         from H and C1-C6 alkyl, or     -   (m) hetCyc^(a)C(═O)C1-C6 alkyl-;

hetCyc^(a) is a 4-6 membered heterocyclic ring having 1-2 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N and O and optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from OH, C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, halogen, (C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)—, C1-C6 alkoxy, oxo and (C1-C6 alkoxy)C(═O)—;

Ring D is (i) a saturated monocyclic 4-7 membered heterocyclic ring having one ring heteroatom which is nitrogen, (ii) a saturated 7-8 membered bridged heterocyclic ring having one ring heteroatom which is nitrogen, or (iii) a saturated 7-11 membered heterospirocyclic ring system having one ring heteroatom which is nitrogen;

each R^(a) is independently C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl or (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl-;

R^(b) is (a) hydroxy, (b) cyclopropyl, (c) hetCyc^(b)CH₂—, (d) R^(i)R^(j)NC(═O)CH₂OCH₂— where R^(i) and R^(j) are independently H or C1-C6 alkyl, (e) R^(c)R^(d)N—, (f) R^(c)R^(d)NCH₂—, (g) C1-C6 alkoxy-, (h) (C1-C4 alkyl)-C(═O)NH— wherein said alkyl portion is optionally substituted with hetCyc^(b), hetAr^(a), C1-C6 alkoxy- or R′R″N—, or said alkyl portion is optionally substituted with two substituents independently selected from R′R″N— and OH, where each R′ and R″ is independently hydrogen or C1-C6 alkyl, (i) (R′R″N)C1-C6 alkoxy(CH₂)_(n)— where n is 0 or 1 and R′ and R″ are independently hydrogen or C1-C6 alkyl, (j) hetCyc^(b)(C1-C3 alkyl)OCH₂—, (k) hetCyc^(b)C(═O)NH— or (1) hetAr^(a)C(═O)NH—;

hetCyc^(b) is a 4-6 membered heterocyclic ring, a 7-8 membered bridged heterocyclic ring, or a 7-10 membered heterospirocyclic ring, each ring having 1-2 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N and O, wherein hetCyc^(b) is optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from OH, fluoro, C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl- (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl-, (C1-C6 alkoxy)C(═O)—, C1-C6 alkoxy, and R′R″N— where R′ and R″ are independently hydrogen or C1-C6 alkyl;

hetAr^(a) is a 5-6 membered heteroaryl ring having 1-3 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N, O and S wherein hetAr^(a) is optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, CN, C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), and C1-C6 alkoxy (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros),

R^(c) is hydrogen or C1-C6 alkyl;

R^(d) is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), (C1-C6 alkoxy)C(═O)-hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), (hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)—, (C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)—, (R^(k)R^(l)N)C1-C6 alkyl- where R^(k) and R^(l) are independently H or C1-C6 alkyl, R^(m)R^(n)NC(═O)C1-C6 alkyl- where R^(m) and R^(n) are independently H or C1-C6 alkyl, PhCH₂— wherein the phenyl is optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, CN, C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), C1-C6 alkoxy (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl- (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), C3-C6 cycloalkyl, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C6 alkyl)SO₂—, R^(e)R^(f)N— and (R′R^(f)N)C1-C6 alkyl- where each R^(e) and R is independently H or C1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl-, or hetCyc^(c) where hetCyc^(c) is a 4-6 membered heterocyclic ring having a ring heteroatom selected from N and O and optionally substituted with C1-C6 alkyl;

n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6;

m is 0 or 1;

E is:

-   -   (a) hydrogen,     -   (b) hydroxy,     -   (c) C1-C6 alkyl optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros,     -   (d) Ar¹C1-C6 alkyl- wherein said alkyl portion is optionally         substituted with 1-3 fluoros,     -   (e) hetAr²C1-C6 alkyl-,     -   (f) (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkoxy-,     -   (g) Ar¹O—,     -   (h) hetAr²—O—,     -   (i) Ar¹NR^(g)— where R^(g) is H or C1-C6 alkyl,     -   (j) hetAr²NR^(g)— where R is H or C1-C6 alkyl,     -   (k) R³C(═O)NR^(g)— where R^(g) is H or C1-C6 alkyl;     -   (l) Ar¹C(═O)NR^(g)— where R^(g) is H or C1-C6 alkyl,     -   (m) hetAr²C(═O)NR^(g)(CH₂)_(p)— where p is 0 or 1 and R^(g) is H         or C1-C6 alkyl,     -   (n) R⁴R⁵NC(═O)—,     -   (o) Ar¹NR^(g)C(═O)—, where R^(g) is H or C1-C6 alkyl,     -   (p) hetAr²NR^(g)C(═O)—, where R^(g) is H or C1-C6 alkyl,     -   (q) Ar¹(C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)— wherein said alkyl portion is         optionally substituted with OH, hydroxy(C1-C6 alkyl), C1-C6         alkoxy or NH₂,     -   (r) hetCyc⁵C(═O)—,     -   (s) R⁴R⁵NC(═O)NR⁹— where R^(g) is H or C1-C6 alkyl, or     -   (t) (C1-C6 alkyl)SO₂—;     -   (u) Ar¹(C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)NR⁹— where R^(g) is H or C1-C6 alkyl,     -   (v) hetAr⁴C(═O)NR⁹— where R^(g) is H or C1-C6 alkyl,     -   (w) hetAr²—S(═O)—,     -   (x) (C3-C6 cycloalkyl)CH₂SO₂—,     -   (y) Ar¹(C1-C6 alkyl)SO₂—,     -   (z) hetAr²SO₂—,     -   (aa) Ar¹,     -   (bb) hetAr²,     -   (cc) hetCyc⁵,     -   (dd) C1-C6 alkoxy,     -   (ee) Ar¹(C1-C6 alkyl)-O—,     -   (ff) hetAr²(C1-C6 alkyl)-O—,     -   (gg) hetAr²—O—C1-C6 alkyl-,     -   (hh) Ar¹(C1-C6 alkyl)NR⁹— where R^(g) is H or C1-C6 alkyl,     -   (ii) hetAr²—S—,     -   (jj) Ar²SO₂NR⁹(CH₂)_(p)— where p is 0 or 1 and R^(g) is H or         C1-C6 alkyl,     -   (kk) (C1-C6 alkoxy)C(═O)—,     -   (ll) (C1-C6 alkyl)NR^(g)C(═O)O— where R^(g) is H or C1-C6 alkyl,     -   (mm) (C1-C6 alkyl)NR^(g)SO₂— where R^(g) is H or C1-C6 alkyl,     -   (nn) hetCyc⁵C(═O)NR^(g)— where R^(g) is H or C1-C6 alkyl,     -   (oo) Q-NR^(h)(C1-C3 alkyl)C(═O)NR^(g)— where R^(g) and R^(h) are         independently H or C1-C6 alkyl and Q is H, C1-C6 alkyl or (C1-C6         alkyl)OC(═O)—,     -   (pp)

where R^(g) and R^(h) are independently H or C1-C6 alkyl, Q is H, C1-C6 alkyl or (C1-C6 alkyl)OC(═O)— and r is 1, 2, 3 or 4,

where R^(g) and R^(h) are independently H or C1-C6 alkyl and Q is H, C1-C6 alkyl or (C1-C6 alkyl)OC(═O)—,

where R⁹ is H or C1-C6 alkyl and Q is H, C1-C6 alkyl or (C1-C6 alkyl)OC(═O)—, or

-   -   (ss) R^(g)R^(h)N— where R^(g) and R^(h) are independently H or         C1-C6 alkyl,     -   (tt) (C3-C6 cycloalkyl)C(═O)NR^(g)— where the cycloalkyl is         optionally and independently substituted with one or more         halogens,     -   (uu) (C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)NR^(g)CH₂— where R⁹ is H or C1-C6 alkyl,         or     -   (vv) C1-C6 alkyl)SO₂NR⁹— where R⁹ is H or C1-C6 alkyl;

Ar¹ is phenyl optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, CN, C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), C1-C6 alkoxy (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl- (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), C3-C6 cycloalkyl, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C6 alkyl)SO₂—, R^(e)R^(f)N— and (R^(e)R^(f)N)C1-C6 alkyl- where each R^(e) and R^(f) is independently H or C1-C6 alkyl;

hetAr² is a 5-6 membered heteroaryl ring having 1-3 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N, O and S, or a 9-10 membered bicyclic heteroaryl having 1-2 ring nitrogen atoms, wherein hetAr² is optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, CN, C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), C1-C6 alkoxy (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl- (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros) and hydroxyC1-C6 alkoxy-;

hetCyc⁵ is a 4-6 membered saturated heterocyclic ring having 1-2 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N, O and S wherein said heterocyclic ring is optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from C1-C6 alkoxy and oxo;

R³ is C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl-, C1-C6 alkoxy, C3-C6 cycloalkyl, (C3-C6 cycloalkyl)CH₂—, (C3-C6 cycloalkyl)O—, (C3-C6 cycloalkyl)CH₂O—, hetCyc⁷O—, Ph-O—, or (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl-; wherein each of said C3-C6 cycloalkyl moieties is optionally substituted with C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), C1-C6 alkoxy, OH or R′R″N— where R′ and R″ are independently hydrogen or C1-C6 alkyl;

R⁴ is H or C1-C6 alkyl;

R⁵ is Ar², hetAr³, Ar²CH₂—, hetCyc⁶-CH₂—, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl-, (C3-C6 cycloalkyl)CH₂—, or C1-C6 alkyl optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros;

Ar² is phenyl optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, CN, C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), C1-C6 alkoxy (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl- (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), C3-C6 cycloalkyl, and R^(g)R^(h)N— where R^(g) and R^(h) are independently H or C1-C6 alkyl, or Ar² is phenyl fused to a 6 membered heterocyclic ring having a ring nitrogen atom and optionally substituted with C1-C6 alkyl;

hetAr³ is a 5-6 membered heteroaryl ring having 1-3 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N, O and S and optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, CN, C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), C1-C6 alkoxy (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), and (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl-(optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros);

hetAr⁴ is pyridin-4(1H)-onyl or pyridin-2(1H)-onyl optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from C1-C6 alkyl and halogen;

hetCyc⁶ is a 5-7 membered heterocyclic ring having 1-3 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N, O and S; and

hetCyc⁷ is a 5-7 membered heterocyclic ring having 1-3 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N, O and S.

In some embodiments, a RET inhibitor (e.g., a first RET inhibitor or a second RET inhibitor) is a compound of the Formula VII:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, wherein:

X¹, X², X³ and X⁴ are independently CH or N, wherein zero, one or two of X¹, X², X³ and X⁴ is N;

A is CN;

B is:

-   -   (b) C1-C6 alkyl optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros,     -   (c) hydroxyC2-C6 alkyl- wherein the alkyl portion is optionally         substituted with a C3-C6 cycloalkylidene ring, or     -   (i) (hetCyc^(a))C1-C3 alkyl-; hetCyc^(a) is a 4-6 membered         heterocyclic ring having 1-2 ring heteroatoms independently         selected from N and O and optionally substituted with one or         more substituents independently selected from OH, C1-C6 alkyl         (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl,         halogen, (C1-C6 alkyl)C(═O)—, C1-C6 alkoxy, oxo, and (C1-C6         alkoxy)C(═O)—;

Ring D is a saturated monocyclic 4-7 membered heterocyclic ring having one ring heteroatom which is nitrogen;

each R^(a) is independently C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros);

R^(b) is (a) hydroxy;

n is 0 or 1;

m is 0 or 1;

E is:

-   -   (e) hetAr²C1-C6 alkyl-,     -   (h) hetAr²—O—,     -   (k) R³C(═O)NR^(g)— where R^(g) is H or C1-C6 alkyl,     -   (l) Ar¹C(═O)NR^(g)— where R^(g) is H or C1-C6 alkyl, or     -   (m) hetAr²C(═O)NR^(g)(CH₂)_(p)— where p is 0 or 1 and R⁹ is H or         C1-C6 alkyl;

Ar¹ is phenyl optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, CN, C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), C1-C6 alkoxy (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl- (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), C3-C6 cycloalkyl, hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl, (C1-C6 alkyl)SO₂—, R^(e)R^(f)N- and (R^(e)R^(f)N)C1-C6 alkyl- where each R^(e) and R is independently H or C1-C6 alkyl;

hetAr² is a 5-6 membered heteroaryl ring having 1-3 ring heteroatoms independently selected from N, O and S, or a 9-10 membered bicyclic heteroaryl having 1-2 ring nitrogen atoms, wherein hetAr² is optionally substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of halogen, CN, C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), C1-C6 alkoxy (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl- (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros) and hydroxyC1-C6 alkoxy-; and

R³ is C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), hydroxyC1-C6 alkyl-, C1-C6 alkoxy, C3-C6 cycloalkyl, (C3-C6 cycloalkyl)CH₂—, (C3-C6 cycloalkyl)O—, (C3-C6 cycloalkyl)CH₂O—, hetCyc⁷-, Ph-O—, or (C1-C6 alkoxy)C1-C6 alkyl-; wherein each of said C3-C6 cycloalkyl moieties is optionally substituted with C1-C6 alkyl (optionally substituted with 1-3 fluoros), C1-C6 alkoxy, OH, or R′R″N— where R′ and R″ are independently hydrogen or C1-C6 alkyl.

In some embodiments, a RET inhibitor (e.g., a first RET inhibitor or a second RET inhibitor) is selected from the group consisting of: N-(1-(5-(3-cyano-6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-4-methylpiperidin-4-yl)benzamide; 6-ethoxy-4-(6-(4-hydroxy-4-(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)piperidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(3-(pyridin-2-yloxy)azetidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridazin-3-yl)oxy)piperidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; (S)-6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(3-(pyridin-2-yloxy)pyrrolidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; N-(1-(5-(3-cyano-6-((3-fluoro-1-methylazetidin-3-yl)methoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-4-methylpiperidin-4-yl)-5-fluoro-2-methylbenzamide; 3-chloro-N-(1-(5-(3-cyano-6-((3-fluoro-1-methylazetidin-3-yl)methoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-4-methylpiperidin-4-yl)picolinamide; N-((3S,4S)-1-(5-(3-cyano-6-ethoxypyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-3-hydroxypiperidin-4-yl)-3-methylbutanamide; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(4-hydroxy-4-(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)piperidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; and 3-chloro-N-((3S,4S)-1-(5-(3-cyano-6-ethoxypyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyrazin-2-yl)-3-hydroxypiperidin-4-yl)picolinamide; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof.

Non-limiting examples of receptor tyrosine kinase (e.g., Trk) targeted therapeutic agents, include afatinib, cabozantinib, cetuximab, crizotinib, dabrafenib, entrectinib, erlotinib, gefitinib, imatinib, lapatinib, lestaurtinib, nilotinib, pazopanib, panitumumab, pertuzumab, sunitinib, trastuzumab, 1-((3S,4R)-4-(3-fluorophenyl)-1-(2-methoxyethyl)pyrrolidin-3-yl)-3-(4-methyl-3-(2-methylpyrimidin-5-yl)-1-phenyl-1H-pyrazol-5-yl)urea, AG 879, AR-772, AR-786, AR-256, AR-618, AZ-23, AZ623, DS-6051, Gö 6976, GNF-5837, GTx-186, GW 441756, LOXO-101, MGCD516, PLX7486, RXDX101, VM-902A, TPX-0005, and TSR-011. Additional Trk targeted therapeutic agents include those described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 8,450,322; 8,513,263; 8,933,084; 8,791,123; 8,946,226; 8,450,322; 8,299,057; and 8,912,194; U.S. Publication No. 2016/0137654; 2015/0166564; 2015/0051222; 2015/0283132; and 2015/0306086; International Publication No. WO 2010/033941; WO 2010/048314; WO 2016/077841; WO 2011/146336; WO 2011/006074; WO 2010/033941; WO 2012/158413; WO 2014078454; WO 2014078417; WO 2014078408; WO 2014078378; WO 2014078372; WO 2014078331; WO 2014078328; WO 2014078325; WO 2014078323; WO 2014078322; WO 2015175788; WO 2009/013126; WO 2013/174876; WO 2015/124697; WO 2010/058006; WO 2015/017533; WO 2015/112806; WO 2013/183578; and WO 2013/074518, all of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties.

Further examples of Trk inhibitors can be found in U.S. Pat. No. 8,637,516, International Publication No. WO 2012/034091, U.S. Pat. No. 9,102,671, International Publication No. WO 2012/116217, U.S. Publication No. 2010/0297115, International Publication No. WO 2009/053442, U.S. Pat. No. 8,642,035, International Publication No. WO2009092049, U.S. Pat. No. 8,691,221, International Publication No. WO2006131952, all of which are incorporated by reference in their entireties herein. Exemplary Trk inhibitors include GNF-4256, described in Cancer Chemother. Pharmacol. 75(1):131-141, 2015; and GNF-5837 (N-[3-[[2,3-dihydro-2-oxo-3-(1H-pyrrol-2-ylmethylene)-1H-indol-6-yl]amino]-4-methylphenyl]-N′-[2-fluoro-5-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-urea), described in ACS Med. Chem. Lett. 3(2):140-145, 2012, each of which is incorporated by reference in its entirety herein.

Additional examples of Trk inhibitors include those disclosed in U.S. Publication No. 2010/0152219, U.S. Pat. No. 8,114,989, and International Publication No. WO 2006/123113, all of which are incorporated by reference in their entireties herein. Exemplary Trk inhibitors include AZ623, described in Cancer 117(6):1321-1391, 2011; AZD6918, described in Cancer Biol. Ther. 16(3):477-483, 2015; AZ64, described in Cancer Chemother. Pharmacol. 70:477-486, 2012; AZ-23 ((S)-5-Chloro-N2-(1-(5-fluoropyridin-2-yl)ethyl)-N4-(5-isopropoxy-1H-pyrazol-3-yl)pyrimidine-2,4-diamine), described in Mol. Cancer Ther. 8:1818-1827, 2009; and AZD7451; each of which is incorporated by reference in its entirety.

A Trk inhibitor can include those described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,615,383; 7,384,632; 6,153,189; 6,027,927; 6,025,166; 5,910,574; 5,877,016; and 5,844,092, each of which is incorporated by reference in its entirety.

Further examples of Trk inhibitors include CEP-751, described in Int. J. Cancer 72:672-679, 1997; CT327, described in Acta Derm. Venereol. 95:542-548, 2015; compounds described in International Publication No. WO 2012/034095; compounds described in U.S. Pat. No. 8,673,347 and International Publication No. WO 2007/022999; compounds described in U.S. Pat. No. 8,338,417; compounds described in International Publication No. WO 2016/027754; compounds described in U.S. Pat. No. 9,242,977; compounds described in U.S. Publication No. 2016/0000783; sunitinib (N-(2-diethylaminoethyl)-5-[(Z)-(5-fluoro-2-oxo-1H-indol-3-ylidene)methyl]-2,4-dimethyl-1H-pyrrole-3-carboxamide), as described in PLoS One 9:e95628, 2014; compounds described in International Publication No. WO 2011/133637; compounds described in U.S. Pat. No. 8,637,256; compounds described in Expert. Opin. Ther. Pat. 24(7):731-744, 2014; compounds described in Expert Opin. Ther. Pat. 19(3):305-319, 2009; (R)-2-phenylpyrrolidine substituted imidazopyridazines, e.g., GNF-8625, (R)-1-(6-(6-(2-(3-fluorophenyl)pyrrolidin-1-yl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-3-yl)-[2,4′-bipyridin]-2′-yl)piperidin-4-ol as described in ACS Med. Chem. Lett. 6(5):562-567, 2015; GTx-186 and others, as described in PLoS One 8(12):e83380, 2013; K252a ((9S-(9α,10β,12α))-2,3,9,10,11,12-hexahydro-10-hydroxy-10-(methoxycarbonyl)-9-methyl-9,12-epoxy-1H-diindolo[1,2,3-fg:3′,2′,1′-kl]pyrrolo[3,4-i][1,6]benzodiazocin-1-one), as described in Mol. Cell Biochem. 339(1-2):201-213, 2010; 4-aminopyrazolylpyrimidines, e.g., AZ-23 (((S)-5-chloro-N2-(1-(5-fluoropyridin-2-yl)ethyl)-N4-(5-isopropoxy-1H-pyrazol-3-yl)pyrimidine-2,4-diamine)), as described in J. Med. Chem. 51(15):4672-4684, 2008; PHA-739358 (danusertib), as described in Mol. Cancer Ther. 6:3158, 2007; Gö 6976 (5,6,7,13-tetrahydro-13-methyl-5-oxo-12H-indolo[2,3-a]pyrrolo[3,4-c]carbazole-12-propanenitrile), as described in J. Neurochem. 72:919-924, 1999; GW441756 ((3Z)-3-[(1-methylindol-3-yl)methylidene]-1H-pyrrolo[3,2-b]pyridin-2-one), as described in IJAE 115:117, 2010; milciclib (PHA-848125AC), described in J. Carcinog. 12:22, 2013; AG-879 ((2E)-3-[3,5-Bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-4-hydroxyphenyl]-2-cyano-2-propenethioamide); altiratinib (N-(4-((2-(cyclopropanecarboxamido)pyridin-4-yl)oxy)-2,5-difluorophenyl)-N-(4-fluorophenyl)cyclopropane-1,1-dicarboxamide); cabozantinib (N-(4-((6,7-Dimethoxyquinolin-4-yl)oxy)phenyl)-N′-(4-fluorophenyl)cyclopropane-1,1-dicarboxamide); lestaurtinib ((5S,6S,8R)-6-Hydroxy-6-(hydroxymethyl)-5-methyl-7,8,14,15-tetrahydro-5H-16-oxa-4b,8a,14-triaza-5,8-methanodibenzo[b,h]cycloocta[jkl]cyclopenta[e]-as-indacen-13(6H)-one); dovatinib (4-amino-5-fluoro-3-[6-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)-1H-benzimidazol-2-yl]quinolin-2(1H)-one mono 2-hydroxypropanoate hydrate); sitravatinib (N-(3-fluoro-4-((2-(5-(((2-methoxyethyl)amino)methyl)pyridin-2-yl)thieno[3,2-b]pyridin-7-yl)oxy)phenyl)-N-(4-fluorophenyl)cyclopropane-1,1-dicarboxamide); ONO-5390556; regorafenib (4-[4-({[4-Chloro-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]carbamoyl}amino)-3-fluorophenoxy]-N-methylpyridine-2-carboxamide hydrate); and VSR-902A; all of the references above are incorporated by reference in their entireties herein.

The ability of a Trk inhibitor to act as a TrkA, TrkB, and/or Trk C inhibitor may be tested using the assays described in Examples A and B in U.S. Pat. No. 8,513,263, which is incorporated herein by reference.

In some embodiments, the receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor is an epidermal growth factor receptor typrosine kinase inhibitor (EGFR). For example, EGFR inhibitors can include osimertinib (merelectinib, Tagrisso), erlotinib (Tarceva), gefitinib (Iressa), cetuximab (Erbitux), necitumumab (Portrazza), neratinib (Nerlynx), lapatinib (Tykerb), panitumumab (Vectibix), and vandetanib (Caprelsa). In some embodiments, the EGFR inhibitor is osimertinib.

In some embodiments, signal transduction pathway inhibitors include Ras-Raf-MEK-ERK pathway inhibitors (e.g., binimetinib, selumetinib, encorafenib, sorafenib, trametinib, and vemurafenib), PI3K-Akt-mTOR-S6K pathway inhibitors (e.g. everolimus, rapamycin, perifosine, temsirolimus), and other kinase inhibitors, such as baricitinib, brigatinib, capmatinib, danusertib, ibrutinib, milciclib, quercetin, regorafenib, ruxolitinib, semaxanib, AP32788, BLU285, BLU554, INCB39110, INCB40093, INCB50465, INCB52793, INCB54828, MGCD265, NMS-088, NMS-1286937, PF 477736 ((R)-amino-N-[5,6-dihydro-2-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-6-oxo-1Hpyrrolo[4,3,2-ef][2,3]benzodiazepin-8-yl]-cyclohexaneacetamide), PLX3397, PLX7486, PLX8394, PLX9486, PRN1008, PRN1371, RXDX103, RXDX106, RXDX108, and TG101209 (N-tert-butyl-3-(5-methyl-2-(4-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)phenylamino)pyrimidin-4-ylamino)benzenesulfonamide).

Non-limiting examples of checkpoint inhibitors include ipilimumab, tremelimumab, nivolumab, pidilizumab, MPDL3208A, MEDI4736, MSB0010718C, BMS-936559, BMS-956559, BMS-935559 (MDX-1105), AMP-224, and pembrolizumab.

In some embodiments, cytotoxic chemotherapeutics are selected from arsenic trioxide, bleomycin, cabazitaxel, capecitabine, carboplatin, cisplatin, cyclophosphamide, cytarabine, dacarbazine, daunorubicin, docetaxel, doxorubicin, etoposide, fluorouracil, gemcitabine, irinotecan, lomustine, methotrexate, mitomycin C, oxaliplatin, paclitaxel, pemetrexed, temozolomide, and vincristine.

Non-limiting examples of angiogenesis-targeted therapies include aflibercept and bevacizumab.

In some embodiments, an additional therapy or therapeutic agent can include a histidyl-tRNA synthetase (HRS) polypeptide or an expressible nucleotide that encodes the HRS polypeptide.

The term “immunotherapy” refers to an agent that modulates the immune system. In some embodiments, an immunotherapy can increase the expression and/or activity of a regulator of the immune system. In some embodiments, an immunotherapy can decrease the expression and/or activity of a regulator of the immune system. In some embodiments, an immunotherapy can recruit and/or enhance the activity of an immune cell.

In some embodiments, the immunotherapy is a cellular immunotherapy (e.g., adoptive T-cell therapy, dendritic cell therapy, natural killer cell therapy). In some embodiments, the cellular immunotherapy is sipuleucel-T (APC8015; Provenge™; Plosker (2011) Drugs 71(1): 101-108). In some embodiments, the cellular immunotherapy includes cells that express a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR). In some embodiments, the cellular immunotherapy is a CAR-T cell therapy. In some embodiments, the CAR-T cell therapy is tisagenlecleucel (Kymriah™)

In some embodiments, the immunotherapy is an antibody therapy (e.g., a monoclonal antibody, a conjugated antibody). In some embodiments, the antibody therapy is bevacizumab (Mvasti™, Avastin®), trastuzumab (Herceptin®), avelumab (Bavencio®), rituximab (MabThera™, Rituxan®), edrecolomab (Panorex), daratumuab (Darzalex®), olaratumab (Lartruvo™), ofatumumab (Arzerra®), alemtuzumab (Campath®), cetuximab (Erbitux®), oregovomab, pembrolizumab (Keytruda®), dinutiximab (Unituxin®), obinutuzumab (Gazyva®), tremelimumab (CP-675,206), ramucirumab (Cyramza®), ublituximab (TG-1101), panitumumab (Vectibix®), elotuzumab (Empliciti™), avelumab (Bavencio®), necitumumab (Portrazza™), cirmtuzumab (UC-961), ibritumomab (Zevalin®), isatuximab (SAR650984), nimotuzumab, fresolimumab (GC1008), lirilumab (INN), mogamulizumab (Poteligeo®), ficlatuzumab (AV-299), denosumab (Xgeva®), ganitumab, urelumab, pidilizumab or amatuximab.

In some embodiments, the immunotherapy is an antibody-drug conjugate. In some embodiments, the antibody-drug conjugate is gemtuzumab ozogamicin (Mylotarg™), inotuzumab ozogamicin (Besponsa®), brentuximab vedotin (Adcetris®), ado-trastuzumab emtansine (TDM-1; Kadcyla®), mirvetuximab soravtansine (IMGN853) or anetumab ravtansine

In some embodiments, the immunotherapy includes blinatumomab (AMG103; Blincyto®) or midostaurin (Rydapt).

In some embodiments, the immunotherapy includes a toxin. In some embodiments, the immunotherapy is denileukin diftitox (Ontak®).

In some embodiments, the immunotherapy is a cytokine therapy. In some embodiments, the cytokine therapy is an interleukin 2 (IL-2) therapy, an interferon alpha (IFNα) therapy, a granulocyte colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) therapy, an interleukin 12 (IL-12) therapy, an interleukin 15 (IL-15) therapy, an interleukin 7 (IL-7) therapy or an erythropoietin-alpha (EPO) therapy. In some embodiments, the IL-2 therapy is aldesleukin (Proleukin®). In some embodiments, the IFNα therapy is IntronA® (Roferon-A®). In some embodiments, the G-CSF therapy is filgrastim (Neupogen®).

In some embodiments, the immunotherapy is an immune checkpoint inhibitor. In some embodiments, the immunotherapy includes one or more immune checkpoint inhibitors. In some embodiments, the immune checkpoint inhibitor is a CTLA-4 inhibitor, a PD-1 inhibitor or a PD-L1 inhibitor. In some embodiments, the CTLA-4 inhibitor is ipilimumab (Yervoy®) or tremelimumab (CP-675,206). In some embodiments, the PD-1 inhibitor is pembrolizumab (Keytruda®) or nivolumab (Opdivo®). In some embodiments, the PD-L1 inhibitor is atezolizumab (Tecentriq®), avelumab (Bavencio®) or durvalumab (Imfinzi™)

In some embodiments, the immunotherapy is mRNA-based immunotherapy. In some embodiments, the mRNA-based immunotherapy is CV9104 (see, e.g., Rausch et al. (2014) Human Vaccin Immunother 10(11): 3146-52; and Kubler et al. (2015) J. Immunother Cancer 3:26).

In some embodiments, the immunotherapy is bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) therapy.

In some embodiments, the immunotherapy is an oncolytic virus therapy. In some embodiments, the oncolytic virus therapy is talimogene alherparepvec (T-VEC; Imlygic®).

In some embodiments, the immunotherapy is a cancer vaccine. In some embodiments, the cancer vaccine is a human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine. In some embodiments, the HPV vaccine is Gardasil®, Gardasil9® or Cervarix®. In some embodiments, the cancer vaccine is a hepatitis B virus (HBV) vaccine. In some embodiments, the HBV vaccine is Engerix-B®, Recombivax HB® or GI-13020 (Tarmogen®). In some embodiments, the cancer vaccine is Twinrix® or Pediarix®. In some embodiments, the cancer vaccine is BiovaxID®, Oncophage®, GVAX, ADXS11-001, ALVAC-CEA, PROSTVAC®, Rindopepimut®, CimaVax-EGF, lapuleucel-T (APC8024; Neuvenge™), GRNVAC1, GRNVAC2, GRN-1201, hepcortespenlisimut-L (Hepko-V5), DCVAX®, SCIB1, BMT CTN 1401, PrCa VBIR, PANVAC, ProstAtak®, DPX-Survivac, or viagenpumatucel-L (HS-110).

In some embodiments, the immunotherapy is a peptide vaccine. In some embodiments, the peptide vaccine is nelipepimut-S (E75) (NeuVax™), IMA901, or SurVaxM (SVN53-67). In some embodiments, the cancer vaccine is an immunogenic personal neoantigen vaccine (see, e.g., Ott et al. (2017) Nature 547: 217-221; Sahin et al. (2017) Nature 547: 222-226). In some embodiments, the cancer vaccine is RGSH4K, or NEO-PV-01. In some embodiments, the cancer vaccine is a DNA-based vaccine. In some embodiments, the DNA-based vaccine is a mammaglobin-A DNA vaccine (see, e.g., Kim et al. (2016) OncoImmunology 5(2): e1069940).

In some embodiments, immune-targeted agents are selected from aldesleukin, interferon alfa-2b, ipilimumab, lambrolizumab, nivolumab, prednisone, and sipuleucel-T.

Non-limiting examples of radiotherapy include radioiodide therapy, external-beam radiation, and radium 223 therapy.

Additional kinase inhibitors include those described in, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,514,446; 7,863,289; 8,026,247; 8,501,756; 8,552,002; 8,815,901; 8,912,204; 9,260,437; 9,273,051; U.S. Publication No. US 2015/0018336; International Publication No. WO 2007/002325; WO 2007/002433; WO 2008/080001; WO 2008/079906; WO 2008/079903; WO 2008/079909; WO 2008/080015; WO 2009/007748; WO 2009/012283; WO 2009/143018; WO 2009/143024; WO WO 2009/014637; 2009/152083; WO 2010/111527; WO 2012/109075; WO 2014/194127; WO 2015/112806; WO 2007/110344; WO 2009/071480; WO 2009/118411; WO 2010/031816; WO 2010/145998; WO 2011/092120; WO 2012/101032; WO 2012/139930; WO 2012/143248; WO 2012/152763; WO 2013/014039; WO 2013/102059; WO 2013/050448; WO 2013/050446; WO 2014/019908; WO 2014/072220; WO 2014/184069; and WO 2016/075224 all of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties.

Further examples of kinase inhibitors include those described in, for example, WO 2016/081450; WO 2016/022569; WO 2016/011141; WO 2016/011144; WO 2016/011147; WO 2015/191667; WO 2012/101029; WO 2012/113774; WO 2015/191666; WO 2015/161277; WO 2015/161274; WO 2015/108992; WO 2015/061572; WO 2015/058129; WO 2015/057873; WO 2015/017528; WO/2015/017533; WO 2014/160521; and WO 2014/011900, each of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

Further examples of kinase inhibitors include luminespib (AUY-922, NVP-AUY922) (5-(2,4-dihydroxy-5-isopropylphenyl)-N-ethyl-4-(4-(morpholinomethyl)phenyl)isoxazole-3-carboxamide) and doramapimod (BIRB-796) (1-[5-tert-butyl-2-(4-methylphenyl)pyrazol-3-yl]-3-[4-(2-morpholin-4-ylethoxy)naphthalen-1-yl]urea).

Accordingly, also provided herein is a method of treating cancer, comprising administering to a patient in need thereof a pharmaceutical combination for treating cancer which comprises (a) a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, (b) an additional therapeutic agent, and (c) optionally at least one pharmaceutically acceptable carrier for simultaneous, separate or sequential use for the treatment of cancer, wherein the amounts of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and the additional therapeutic agent are together effective in treating the cancer.

In some embodiments, the additional therapeutic agent(s) includes any one of the above listed therapies or therapeutic agents which are standards of care in cancers wherein the cancer has a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET protein, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same.

These additional therapeutic agents may be administered with one or more doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or pharmaceutical composition thereof, as part of the same or separate dosage forms, via the same or different routes of administration, and/or on the same or different administration schedules according to standard pharmaceutical practice known to one skilled in the art.

Also provided herein is (i) a pharmaceutical combination for treating a cancer in a patient in need thereof, which comprises (a) a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, (b) at least one additional therapeutic agent (e.g., any of the exemplary additional therapeutic agents described herein or known in the art), and (c) optionally at least one pharmaceutically acceptable carrier for simultaneous, separate or sequential use for the treatment of cancer, wherein the amounts of the compound of Formula I or pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and of the additional therapeutic agent are together effective in treating the cancer; (ii) a pharmaceutical composition comprising such a combination; (iii) the use of such a combination for the preparation of a medicament for the treatment of cancer; and (iv) a commercial package or product comprising such a combination as a combined preparation for simultaneous, separate or sequential use; and to a method of treatment of cancer in a patient in need thereof. In some embodiments, the patient is a human. In some embodiments, the cancer is a RET-associated cancer. For example, a RET-associated cancer having one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations.

The term “pharmaceutical combination”, as used herein, refers to a pharmaceutical therapy resulting from the mixing or combining of more than one active ingredient and includes both fixed and non-fixed combinations of the active ingredients. The term “fixed combination” means that a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and at least one additional therapeutic agent (e.g., a chemotherapeutic agent), are both administered to a patient simultaneously in the form of a single composition or dosage. The term “non-fixed combination” means that a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and at least one additional therapeutic agent (e.g., chemotherapeutic agent) are formulated as separate compositions or dosages such that they may be administered to a patient in need thereof simultaneously, concurrently or sequentially with variable intervening time limits, wherein such administration provides effective levels of the two or more compounds in the body of the patient. These also apply to cocktail therapies, e.g. the administration of three or more active ingredients

Accordingly, also provided herein is a method of treating a cancer, comprising administering to a patient in need thereof a pharmaceutical combination for treating cancer which comprises (a) a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, (b) an additional therapeutic agent, and (c) optionally at least one pharmaceutically acceptable carrier for simultaneous, separate or sequential use for the treatment of cancer, wherein the amounts of the compound of Formula I or pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and the additional therapeutic agent are together effective in treating the cancer. In some embodiments, the compound of Formula I or pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, and the additional therapeutic agent are administered simultaneously as separate dosages. In some embodiments, the compound of Formula I or pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, and the additional therapeutic agent are administered as separate dosages sequentially in any order, in jointly therapeutically effective amounts, e.g. in daily or intermittently dosages. In some embodiments, the compound of Formula I or pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, and the additional therapeutic agent are administered simultaneously as a combined dosage. In some embodiments, the cancer is a RET-associated cancer. For example, a RET-associated cancer having one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations. In some embodiments, the additional therapeutic agent is crizotinib. In some embodiments, the additional therapeutic agent is osimertinib. In some embodiments, the patient has been administered one or more doses of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, prior to administration of the pharmaceutical composition. In some embodiments, the cancer is a lung cancer (e.g., a RET-associated lung cancer).

Also provided herein is a method of treating a disease or disorder mediated by RET in a patient in need of such treatment, the method comprising administering to the patient a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof or a pharmaceutical composition thereof. In some embodiments, the disease or disorder mediated by RET is a dysregulation of RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same. For example the dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same includes one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations. A disease or disorder mediated by RET can include any disease, disorder or condition that is directly or indirectly linked to expression or activity of RET, including overexpression and/or abnormal activity levels. In some embodiments, the disease is cancer (e.g., a RET-associated cancer). In some embodiments, the cancer is any of the cancers or RET-associated cancers described herein. In some embodiments, the additional therapeutic agent is crizotinib. In some embodiments, the additional therapeutic agent is osimertinib. In some embodiments, the patient has been administered one or more doses of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, prior to administration of the pharmaceutical composition. In some embodiments, the cancer is a lung cancer (e.g., a RET-associated lung cancer).

Although the genetic basis of tumorigenesis may vary between different cancer types, the cellular and molecular mechanisms required for metastasis appear to be similar for all solid tumor types. During a metastatic cascade, the cancer cells lose growth inhibitory responses, undergo alterations in adhesiveness and produce enzymes that can degrade extracellular matrix components. This leads to detachment of tumor cells from the original tumor, infiltration into the circulation through newly formed vasculature, migration and extravasation of the tumor cells at favorable distant sites where they may form colonies. A number of genes have been identified as being promoters or suppressors of metastasis. For example, overexpression of glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and its RET receptor tyrosine kinase have been correlated with cancer proliferation and metastasis. See, e.g., Zeng, Q. et al. J. Int. Med. Res. (2008) 36(4): 656-64.

Accordingly, also provided herein are methods for inhibiting, preventing, aiding in the prevention, or decreasing the symptoms of metastasis of a cancer in a patient in need thereof, the method comprising administering to the patient a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof or a pharmaceutical composition thereof. Such methods can be used in the treatment of one or more of the cancers described herein. See, e.g., US Publication No. 2013/0029925; International Publication No. WO 2014/083567; and U.S. Pat. No. 8,568,998. See also, e.g., Hezam K et al., Rev Neurosci 2018 Jan. 26; 29:93-98; Gao L, et al., Pancreas 2015 January; 44:134-143; Ding K et al., J Biol Chem 2014 Jun. 6; 289:16057-71; and Amit M et al., Oncogene 2017 Jun. 8; 36:3232-3239. In some embodiments, the cancer is a RET-associated cancer. In some embodiments, the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof is used in combination with an additional therapy or another therapeutic agent, including a chemotherapeutic agent, such as a kinase inhibitor. For example, a first or second RET kinase inhibitor. In some embodiments, the additional therapeutic agent is crizotinib. In some embodiments, the additional therapeutic agent is osimertinib. In some embodiments, the patient has been administered one or more doses of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, prior to administration of the pharmaceutical composition. In some embodiments, the cancer is a lung cancer (e.g., a RET-associated lung cancer).

The term “metastasis” is an art known term and means the formation of an additional tumor (e.g., a solid tumor) at a site distant from a primary tumor in a subject or patient, where the additional tumor includes the same or similar cancer cells as the primary tumor.

Also provided are methods of decreasing the risk of developing a metastasis or an additional metastasis in a patient having a RET-associated cancer that include: selecting, identifying, or diagnosing a patient as having a RET-associated cancer, and administering a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof to the patient selected, identified, or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer. Also provided are methods of decreasing the risk of developing a metastasis or an additional metastasis in a patient having a RET-associated cancer that includes administering a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof to a patient having a RET-associated cancer. The decrease in the risk of developing a metastasis or an additional metastasis in a patient having a RET-associated cancer can be compared to the risk of developing a metastasis or an additional metastasis in the patient prior to treatment, or as compared to a patient or a population of patients having a similar or the same RET-associated cancer that has received no treatment or a different treatment. In some embodiments, the RET-associated cancer is a RET-associated cancer having one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations. In some embodiments, the additional therapeutic agent is crizotinib. In some embodiments, the additional therapeutic agent is osimertinib. In some embodiments, the patient has been administered one or more doses of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, prior to administration of the pharmaceutical composition. In some embodiments, the cancer is a lung cancer (e.g., a RET-associated lung cancer).

The phrase “risk of developing a metastasis” means the risk that a subject or patient having a primary tumor will develop an additional tumor (e.g., a solid tumor) at a site distant from a primary tumor in a subject or patient over a set period of time, where the additional tumor includes the same or similar cancer cells as the primary tumor. Methods for reducing the risk of developing a metastasis in a subject or patient having a cancer are described herein.

The phrase “risk of developing additional metastases” means the risk that a subject or patient having a primary tumor and one or more additional tumors at sites distant from the primary tumor (where the one or more additional tumors include the same or similar cancer cells as the primary tumor) will develop one or more further tumors distant from the primary tumor, where the further tumors include the same or similar cancer cells as the primary tumor. Methods for reducing the risk of developing additional metastasis are described herein.

In some embodiments, the presence of one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations in a tumor causes the tumor to be more resistant to treatment with a first RET inhibitor. Methods useful when a RET inhibitor resistance mutation causes the tumor to be more resistant to treatment with a first RET inhibitor are described below. For example, provided herein are methods of treating a subject having a cancer that include: identifying a subject having a cancer cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations; and administering to the identified subject a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof is administered in combination with the first RET inhibitor. Also provided are methods of treating a subject identified as having a cancer cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations that include administering to the subject a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof is administered in combination with the first RET inhibitor. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations confer increased resistance to a cancer cell or tumor to treatment with the first RET inhibitor. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations include one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations listed in Tables 3 and 4. For example, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations can include a substitution at amino acid position 804, e.g., V804M, V804L, or V804E, or a substitution at amino acid position 810, e.g., G810S, G810R, G810C, G810A, G810V, and G810D.

For example, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a first RET inhibitor, wherein the first RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of alectinib, cabozantinib, lenvatinib, nintedanib, ponatinib, regorafenib, sorafenib, sunitinib, vandetanib, RXDX-105 (agerafenib), LOXO-292, BLU-667 ((1S,4R)—N—((S)-1-(6-(4-fluoro-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)ethyl)-1-methoxy-4-(4-methyl-6-((5-methyl-1H-pyrazol-3-yl)amino)pyrimidin-2-yl)cyclohexane-1-carboxamide), BLU6864, DS-5010, GSK3179106, GSK3352589, and NMS-E668. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; and (d) administering a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the first RET inhibitor of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation.

In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a first RET inhibitor, wherein the first RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of alectinib, cabozantinib, lenvatinib, nintedanib, ponatinib, regorafenib, sorafenib, sunitinib, vandetanib, RXDX-105 (agerafenib), LOXO-292, BLU-667 ((1S,4R)—N—((S)-1-(6-(4-fluoro-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)ethyl)-1-methoxy-4-(4-methyl-6-((5-methyl-1H-pyrazol-3-yl)amino)pyrimidin-2-yl)cyclohexane-1-carboxamide), BLU6864, DS-5010, GSK3179106, GSK3352589, and NMS-E668. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; and (d) administering a compound of Formula I selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the first RET inhibitor of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation.

In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting one or more fusion proteins of Table 1 and/or one or more RET kinase protein point mutations/insertions/deletions of Table 2 in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a first RET inhibitor, wherein the first RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of alectinib, cabozantinib, lenvatinib, nintedanib, ponatinib, regorafenib, sorafenib, sunitinib, vandetanib, RXDX-105 (agerafenib), LOXO-292, BLU-667 ((1S,4R)—N—((S)-1-(6-(4-fluoro-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)ethyl)-1-methoxy-4-(4-methyl-6-((5-methyl-1H-pyrazol-3-yl)amino)pyrimidin-2-yl)cyclohexane-1-carboxamide), BLU6864, DS-5010, GSK3179106, GSK3352589, and NMS-E668. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation of Tables 3 or 4; and (d) administering a compound of Formula I selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the first RET inhibitor of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation.

In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting the fusion protein KIF5B-RET in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a first RET inhibitor, wherein the first RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of alectinib, cabozantinib, lenvatinib, nintedanib, ponatinib, regorafenib, sorafenib, sunitinib, vandetanib, RXDX-105 (agerafenib), LOXO-292, BLU-667 ((1S,4R)—N—((S)-1-(6-(4-fluoro-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)ethyl)-1-methoxy-4-(4-methyl-6-((5-methyl-1H-pyrazol-3-yl)amino)pyrimidin-2-yl)cyclohexane-1-carboxamide), BLU6864, DS-5010, GSK3179106, GSK3352589, and NMS-E668. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has the RET inhibitor resistance mutation V804M, G810S, or G810R; and (d) administering a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the first RET inhibitor of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation.

As another example, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; and (d) administering a second RET inhibitor, wherein the second RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of alectinib, cabozantinib, lenvatinib, nintedanib, ponatinib, regorafenib, sorafenib, sunitinib, vandetanib, RXDX-105 (agerafenib), LOXO-292, BLU-667 ((1S,4R)—N—((S)-1-(6-(4-fluoro-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)ethyl)-1-methoxy-4-(4-methyl-6-((5-methyl-1H-pyrazol-3-yl)amino)pyrimidin-2-yl)cyclohexane-1-carboxamide), BLU6864, DS-5010, GSK3179106, GSK3352589, and NMS-E668, as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; and (d) administering a second RET inhibitor, wherein the second RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of alectinib, cabozantinib, lenvatinib, nintedanib, ponatinib, regorafenib, sorafenib, sunitinib, vandetanib, RXDX-105 (agerafenib), LOXO-292, BLU-667 ((1S,4R)—N—((S)-1-(6-(4-fluoro-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)ethyl)-1-methoxy-4-(4-methyl-6-((5-methyl-1H-pyrazol-3-yl)amino)pyrimidin-2-yl)cyclohexane-1-carboxamide), BLU6864, DS-5010, GSK3179106, GSK3352589, and NMS-E668, as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting one or more fusion proteins of Table 1 and/or one or more RET kinase protein point mutations/insertions/deletions of Table 2 in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation of Tables 3 or 4; and (d) administering a second RET inhibitor, wherein the second RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of alectinib, cabozantinib, lenvatinib, nintedanib, ponatinib, regorafenib, sorafenib, sunitinib, vandetanib, RXDX-105 (agerafenib), LOXO-292, BLU-667 ((1S,4R)—N—((S)-1-(6-(4-fluoro-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)ethyl)-1-methoxy-4-(4-methyl-6-((5-methyl-1H-pyrazol-3-yl)amino)pyrimidin-2-yl)cyclohexane-1-carboxamide), BLU6864, DS-5010, GSK3179106, GSK3352589, and NMS-E668, as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting the fusion protein KIF5B-RET in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has the RET inhibitor resistance mutation V804M, G810S, or G810R; and (d) administering a second RET inhibitor, wherein the second RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of alectinib, cabozantinib, lenvatinib, nintedanib, ponatinib, regorafenib, sorafenib, sunitinib, vandetanib, RXDX-105 (agerafenib), LOXO-292, BLU-667 ((1S,4R)—N—((S)-1-(6-(4-fluoro-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)ethyl)-1-methoxy-4-(4-methyl-6-((5-methyl-1H-pyrazol-3-yl)amino)pyrimidin-2-yl)cyclohexane-1-carboxamide), BLU6864, DS-5010, GSK3179106, GSK3352589, and NMS-E668, as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation.

As another example, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; and (d) administering a second therapeutic agent, wherein the second therapeutic agent is selected from the group consisting of crizotinib and osimertinib, as a monotherapy or in conjunction with a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting one or more fusion proteins of Table 1 and/or one or more RET kinase protein point mutations/insertions of Table 2 in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation of Tables 3 or 4; and (d) administering a second therapeutic agent, wherein the second therapeutic agent is selected from the group consisting of crizotinib and osimertinib, as a monotherapy or in conjunction with a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments of the above, the RET-associated cancer is a lung cancer.

In some embodiments, the presence of one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations in a tumor causes the tumor to be more resistant to treatment with a first RET inhibitor. Methods useful when a RET inhibitor resistance mutation causes the tumor to be more resistant to treatment with a first RET inhibitor are described below. For example, provided herein are methods of treating a subject having a cancer that include: identifying a subject having a cancer cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations; and administering to the identified subject a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof is administered in combination with the first RET inhibitor. Also provided are methods of treating a subject identified as having a cancer cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations that include administering to the subject a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof is administered in combination with the first RET inhibitor. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations confer increased resistance to a cancer cell or tumor to treatment with the first RET inhibitor. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations include one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations listed in Tables 3 and 4. For example, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations can include a substitution at amino acid position 804, e.g., V804M, V804L, or V804E, or a substitution at amino acid position 810, e.g., G810S, G810R, G810C, G810A, G810V, and G810D.

For example, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a first RET inhibitor, wherein the first RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of: ((S)-4-(6-(4-(2-hydroxy-3-phenylpropanoyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-4-(6-(4-(2-(pyridin-2-yl)acetyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(4-(2,6-difluorobenzoyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile 2,2,2-trifluoroacetate; 4-(5-(3-cyano-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-N,N-diethylpiperazine-1-carboxamide; 1-(5-(3-cyano-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-N-(2-methoxy-3-methylbutyl)piperidine-4-carboxamide; 4-(6-(4-(2-(5-fluoropyridin-2-yl)acetyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile bis(2,2,2-trifluoroacetate); 4-(6-(4-(2,6-difluorobenzyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridine-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(4-(2-methoxybenzyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-4-(6-(4-(pyridine-2-ylmethyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; and (d) administering a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the first RET inhibitor of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation.

In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a first RET inhibitor, wherein the first RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of: ((S)-4-(6-(4-(2-hydroxy-3-phenylpropanoyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-4-(6-(4-(2-(pyridin-2-yl)acetyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(4-(2,6-difluorobenzoyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile 2,2,2-trifluoroacetate; 4-(5-(3-cyano-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-N,N-diethylpiperazine-1-carboxamide; 1-(5-(3-cyano-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-N-(2-methoxy-3-methylbutyl)piperidine-4-carboxamide; 4-(6-(4-(2-(5-fluoropyridin-2-yl)acetyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile bis(2,2,2-trifluoroacetate); 4-(6-(4-(2,6-difluorobenzyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridine-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(4-(2-methoxybenzyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-4-(6-(4-(pyridine-2-ylmethyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; and (d) administering a compound of Formula I selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the first RET inhibitor of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation.

In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting one or more fusion proteins of Table 1 and/or one or more RET kinase protein point mutations/insertions/deletions of Table 2 in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a first RET inhibitor, wherein the first RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of: ((S)-4-(6-(4-(2-hydroxy-3-phenylpropanoyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-4-(6-(4-(2-(pyridin-2-yl)acetyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(4-(2,6-difluorobenzoyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile 2,2,2-trifluoroacetate; 4-(5-(3-cyano-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-N,N-diethylpiperazine-1-carboxamide; 1-(5-(3-cyano-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-N-(2-methoxy-3-methylbutyl)piperidine-4-carboxamide; 4-(6-(4-(2-(5-fluoropyridin-2-yl)acetyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile bis(2,2,2-trifluoroacetate); 4-(6-(4-(2,6-difluorobenzyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridine-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(4-(2-methoxybenzyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-4-(6-(4-(pyridine-2-ylmethyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation of Tables 3 or 4; and (d) administering a compound of Formula I selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the first RET inhibitor of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation.

In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting the fusion protein KIF5B-RET in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a first RET inhibitor, wherein the first RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of ((S)-4-(6-(4-(2-hydroxy-3-phenylpropanoyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-4-(6-(4-(2-(pyridin-2-yl)acetyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(4-(2,6-difluorobenzoyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile 2,2,2-trifluoroacetate; 4-(5-(3-cyano-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-N,N-diethylpiperazine-1-carboxamide; 1-(5-(3-cyano-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-N-(2-methoxy-3-methylbutyl)piperidine-4-carboxamide; 4-(6-(4-(2-(5-fluoropyridin-2-yl)acetyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile bis(2,2,2-trifluoroacetate); 4-(6-(4-(2,6-difluorobenzyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridine-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(4-(2-methoxybenzyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-4-(6-(4-(pyridine-2-ylmethyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has the RET inhibitor resistance mutation V804M, G810S, or G810R; and (d) administering a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the first RET inhibitor of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation.

As another example, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; and (d) administering a second RET inhibitor, wherein the second RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of: ((S)-4-(6-(4-(2-hydroxy-3-phenylpropanoyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-4-(6-(4-(2-(pyridin-2-yl)acetyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(4-(2,6-difluorobenzoyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile 2,2,2-trifluoroacetate; 4-(5-(3-cyano-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-N,N-diethylpiperazine-1-carboxamide; 1-(5-(3-cyano-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-N-(2-methoxy-3-methylbutyl)piperidine-4-carboxamide; 4-(6-(4-(2-(5-fluoropyridin-2-yl)acetyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile bis(2,2,2-trifluoroacetate); 4-(6-(4-(2,6-difluorobenzyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridine-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(4-(2-methoxybenzyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-4-(6-(4-(pyridine-2-ylmethyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; and (d) administering a second RET inhibitor, wherein the second RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of: ((S)-4-(6-(4-(2-hydroxy-3-phenylpropanoyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-4-(6-(4-(2-(pyridin-2-yl)acetyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(4-(2,6-difluorobenzoyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile 2,2,2-trifluoroacetate; 4-(5-(3-cyano-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-N,N-diethylpiperazine-1-carboxamide; 1-(5-(3-cyano-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-N-(2-methoxy-3-methylbutyl)piperidine-4-carboxamide; 4-(6-(4-(2-(5-fluoropyridin-2-yl)acetyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile bis(2,2,2-trifluoroacetate); 4-(6-(4-(2,6-difluorobenzyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridine-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(4-(2-methoxybenzyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-4-(6-(4-(pyridine-2-ylmethyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting one or more fusion proteins of Table 1 and/or one or more RET kinase protein point mutations/insertions/deletions of Table 2 in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation of Tables 3 or 4; and (d) administering a second RET inhibitor, wherein the second RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of: ((S)-4-(6-(4-(2-hydroxy-3-phenylpropanoyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-4-(6-(4-(2-(pyridin-2-yl)acetyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(4-(2,6-difluorobenzoyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile 2,2,2-trifluoroacetate; 4-(5-(3-cyano-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-N,N-diethylpiperazine-1-carboxamide; 1-(5-(3-cyano-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-N-(2-methoxy-3-methylbutyl)piperidine-4-carboxamide; 4-(6-(4-(2-(5-fluoropyridin-2-yl)acetyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile bis(2,2,2-trifluoroacetate); 4-(6-(4-(2,6-difluorobenzyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridine-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(4-(2-methoxybenzyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-4-(6-(4-(pyridine-2-ylmethyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting the fusion protein KIF5B-RET in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has the RET inhibitor resistance mutation V804M, G810S, or G810R; and (d) administering a second RET inhibitor, wherein the second RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of: ((S)-4-(6-(4-(2-hydroxy-3-phenylpropanoyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-4-(6-(4-(2-(pyridin-2-yl)acetyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(4-(2,6-difluorobenzoyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile 2,2,2-trifluoroacetate; 4-(5-(3-cyano-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-N,N-diethylpiperazine-1-carboxamide; 1-(5-(3-cyano-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-N-(2-methoxy-3-methylbutyl)piperidine-4-carboxamide; 4-(6-(4-(2-(5-fluoropyridin-2-yl)acetyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile bis(2,2,2-trifluoroacetate); 4-(6-(4-(2,6-difluorobenzyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridine-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(4-(2-methoxybenzyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-4-(6-(4-(pyridine-2-ylmethyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation.

In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a first RET inhibitor, wherein the first RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of: 4-(6-(4-benzylpiperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(2-morpholinoethoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxyethoxy)-4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; (R)-6-(2-hydroxypropoxy)-4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(6-(6-methoxynicotinoyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-(dimethylamino)ethoxy)-4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(2-morpholinoethoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-((1-methyl-1H-imidazol-4-yl)methoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; and 6-ethoxy-4-(5-(6-((5-fluoro-6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyrazin-2-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; and (d) administering a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the first RET inhibitor of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation.

In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a first RET inhibitor, wherein the first RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of: 4-(6-(4-benzylpiperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(2-morpholinoethoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxyethoxy)-4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; (R)-6-(2-hydroxypropoxy)-4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(6-(6-methoxynicotinoyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-(dimethylamino)ethoxy)-4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(2-morpholinoethoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-((1-methyl-1H-imidazol-4-yl)methoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; and 6-ethoxy-4-(5-(6-((5-fluoro-6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyrazin-2-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; and (d) administering a compound of Formula I selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the first RET inhibitor of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation.

In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting one or more fusion proteins of Table 1 and/or one or more RET kinase protein point mutations/insertions/deletions of Table 2 in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a first RET inhibitor, wherein the first RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of: 4-(6-(4-benzylpiperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(2-morpholinoethoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxyethoxy)-4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; (R)-6-(2-hydroxypropoxy)-4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(6-(6-methoxynicotinoyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-(dimethylamino)ethoxy)-4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(2-morpholinoethoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-((1-methyl-1H-imidazol-4-yl)methoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; and 6-ethoxy-4-(5-(6-((5-fluoro-6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyrazin-2-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation of Tables 3 or 4; and (d) administering a compound of Formula I selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the first RET inhibitor of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation.

In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting the fusion protein KIF5B-RET in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a first RET inhibitor, wherein the first RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of 4-(6-(4-benzylpiperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(2-morpholinoethoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxyethoxy)-4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; (R)-6-(2-hydroxypropoxy)-4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(6-(6-methoxynicotinoyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-(dimethylamino)ethoxy)-4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(2-morpholinoethoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-((1-methyl-1H-imidazol-4-yl)methoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; and 6-ethoxy-4-(5-(6-((5-fluoro-6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyrazin-2-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has the RET inhibitor resistance mutation V804M, G810S, or G810R; and (d) administering a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the first RET inhibitor of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation.

As another example, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; and (d) administering a second RET inhibitor, wherein the second RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of: 4-(6-(4-benzylpiperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(2-morpholinoethoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxyethoxy)-4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; (R)-6-(2-hydroxypropoxy)-4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(6-(6-methoxynicotinoyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-(dimethylamino)ethoxy)-4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(2-morpholinoethoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-((1-methyl-1H-imidazol-4-yl)methoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; and 6-ethoxy-4-(5-(6-((5-fluoro-6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyrazin-2-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; and (d) administering a second RET inhibitor, wherein the second RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of: 4-(6-(4-benzylpiperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(2-morpholinoethoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxyethoxy)-4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; (R)-6-(2-hydroxypropoxy)-4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(6-(6-methoxynicotinoyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-(dimethylamino)ethoxy)-4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(2-morpholinoethoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-((1-methyl-1H-imidazol-4-yl)methoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; and 6-ethoxy-4-(5-(6-((5-fluoro-6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyrazin-2-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting one or more fusion proteins of Table 1 and/or one or more RET kinase protein point mutations/insertions/deletions of Table 2 in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation of Tables 3 or 4; and (d) administering a second RET inhibitor, wherein the second RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of: 4-(6-(4-benzylpiperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(2-morpholinoethoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxyethoxy)-4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; (R)-6-(2-hydroxypropoxy)-4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(6-(6-methoxynicotinoyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-(dimethylamino)ethoxy)-4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(2-morpholinoethoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-((1-methyl-1H-imidazol-4-yl)methoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; and 6-ethoxy-4-(5-(6-((5-fluoro-6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyrazin-2-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting the fusion protein KIF5B-RET in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has the RET inhibitor resistance mutation V804M, G810S, or G810R; and (d) administering a second RET inhibitor, wherein the second RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of: 4-(6-(4-benzylpiperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(2-morpholinoethoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxyethoxy)-4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; (R)-6-(2-hydroxypropoxy)-4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-methoxyethoxy)-4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(6-(6-methoxynicotinoyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-(dimethylamino)ethoxy)-4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-(2-morpholinoethoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 4-(6-(6-((6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyridin-3-yl)-6-((1-methyl-1H-imidazol-4-yl)methoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; and 6-ethoxy-4-(5-(6-((5-fluoro-6-methoxypyridin-3-yl)methyl)-3,6-diazabicyclo[3.1.1]heptan-3-yl)pyrazin-2-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation.

In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a first RET inhibitor, wherein the first RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of: N-(1-(5-(3-cyano-6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-4-methylpiperidin-4-yl)benzamide; 6-ethoxy-4-(6-(4-hydroxy-4-(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)piperidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(3-(pyridin-2-yloxy)azetidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridazin-3-yl)oxy)piperidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; (S)-6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(3-(pyridin-2-yloxy)pyrrolidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; N-(1-(5-(3-cyano-6-((3-fluoro-1-methylazetidin-3-yl)methoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-4-methylpiperidin-4-yl)-5-fluoro-2-methylbenzamide; 3-chloro-N-(1-(5-(3-cyano-6-((3-fluoro-1-methylazetidin-3-yl)methoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-4-methylpiperidin-4-yl)picolinamide; N-((3S,4S)-1-(5-(3-cyano-6-ethoxypyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-3-hydroxypiperidin-4-yl)-3-methylbutanamide; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(4-hydroxy-4-(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)piperidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; and 3-chloro-N-((3S,4S)-1-(5-(3-cyano-6-ethoxypyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyrazin-2-yl)-3-hydroxypiperidin-4-yl)picolinamide; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; and (d) administering a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the first RET inhibitor of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation.

In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a first RET inhibitor, wherein the first RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of: N-(1-(5-(3-cyano-6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-4-methylpiperidin-4-yl)benzamide; 6-ethoxy-4-(6-(4-hydroxy-4-(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)piperidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(3-(pyridin-2-yloxy)azetidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridazin-3-yl)oxy)piperidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; (S)-6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(3-(pyridin-2-yloxy)pyrrolidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; N-(1-(5-(3-cyano-6-((3-fluoro-1-methylazetidin-3-yl)methoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-4-methylpiperidin-4-yl)-5-fluoro-2-methylbenzamide; 3-chloro-N-(1-(5-(3-cyano-6-((3-fluoro-1-methylazetidin-3-yl)methoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-4-methylpiperidin-4-yl)picolinamide; N-((3S,4S)-1-(5-(3-cyano-6-ethoxypyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-3-hydroxypiperidin-4-yl)-3-methylbutanamide; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(4-hydroxy-4-(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)piperidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; and 3-chloro-N-((3S,4S)-1-(5-(3-cyano-6-ethoxypyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyrazin-2-yl)-3-hydroxypiperidin-4-yl)picolinamide; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; and (d) administering a compound of Formula I selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the first RET inhibitor of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation.

In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting one or more fusion proteins of Table 1 and/or one or more RET kinase protein point mutations/insertions/deletions of Table 2 in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a first RET inhibitor, wherein the first RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of: N-(1-(5-(3-cyano-6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-4-methylpiperidin-4-yl)benzamide; 6-ethoxy-4-(6-(4-hydroxy-4-(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)piperidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(3-(pyridin-2-yloxy)azetidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridazin-3-yl)oxy)piperidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; (S)-6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(3-(pyridin-2-yloxy)pyrrolidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; N-(1-(5-(3-cyano-6-((3-fluoro-1-methylazetidin-3-yl)methoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-4-methylpiperidin-4-yl)-5-fluoro-2-methylbenzamide; 3-chloro-N-(1-(5-(3-cyano-6-((3-fluoro-1-methylazetidin-3-yl)methoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-4-methylpiperidin-4-yl)picolinamide; N-((3S,4S)-1-(5-(3-cyano-6-ethoxypyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-3-hydroxypiperidin-4-yl)-3-methylbutanamide; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(4-hydroxy-4-(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)piperidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; and 3-chloro-N-((3S,4S)-1-(5-(3-cyano-6-ethoxypyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyrazin-2-yl)-3-hydroxypiperidin-4-yl)picolinamide; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation of Tables 3 or 4; and (d) administering a compound of Formula I selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the first RET inhibitor of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation.

In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting the fusion protein KIF5B-RET in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a first RET inhibitor, wherein the first RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of: N-(1-(5-(3-cyano-6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-4-methylpiperidin-4-yl)benzamide; 6-ethoxy-4-(6-(4-hydroxy-4-(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)piperidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(3-(pyridin-2-yloxy)azetidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridazin-3-yl)oxy)piperidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; (S)-6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(3-(pyridin-2-yloxy)pyrrolidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; N-(1-(5-(3-cyano-6-((3-fluoro-1-methylazetidin-3-yl)methoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-4-methylpiperidin-4-yl)-5-fluoro-2-methylbenzamide; 3-chloro-N-(1-(5-(3-cyano-6-((3-fluoro-1-methylazetidin-3-yl)methoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-4-methylpiperidin-4-yl)picolinamide; N-((3S,4S)-1-(5-(3-cyano-6-ethoxypyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-3-hydroxypiperidin-4-yl)-3-methylbutanamide; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(4-hydroxy-4-(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)piperidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; and 3-chloro-N-((3S,4S)-1-(5-(3-cyano-6-ethoxypyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyrazin-2-yl)-3-hydroxypiperidin-4-yl)picolinamide; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has the RET inhibitor resistance mutation V804M, G810S, or G810R; and (d) administering a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the first RET inhibitor of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation.

As another example, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; and (d) administering a second RET inhibitor, wherein the second RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of: N-(1-(5-(3-cyano-6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-4-methylpiperidin-4-yl)benzamide; 6-ethoxy-4-(6-(4-hydroxy-4-(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)piperidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(3-(pyridin-2-yloxy)azetidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridazin-3-yl)oxy)piperidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; (S)-6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(3-(pyridin-2-yloxy)pyrrolidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; N-(1-(5-(3-cyano-6-((3-fluoro-1-methylazetidin-3-yl)methoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-4-methylpiperidin-4-yl)-5-fluoro-2-methylbenzamide; 3-chloro-N-(1-(5-(3-cyano-6-((3-fluoro-1-methylazetidin-3-yl)methoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-4-methylpiperidin-4-yl)picolinamide; N-((3S,4S)-1-(5-(3-cyano-6-ethoxypyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-3-hydroxypiperidin-4-yl)-3-methylbutanamide; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(4-hydroxy-4-(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)piperidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; and 3-chloro-N-((3S,4S)-1-(5-(3-cyano-6-ethoxypyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyrazin-2-yl)-3-hydroxypiperidin-4-yl)picolinamide; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; and (d) administering a second RET inhibitor, wherein the second RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of: N-(1-(5-(3-cyano-6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-4-methylpiperidin-4-yl)benzamide; 6-ethoxy-4-(6-(4-hydroxy-4-(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)piperidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(3-(pyridin-2-yloxy)azetidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridazin-3-yl)oxy)piperidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; (S)-6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(3-(pyridin-2-yloxy)pyrrolidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; N-(1-(5-(3-cyano-6-((3-fluoro-1-methylazetidin-3-yl)methoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-4-methylpiperidin-4-yl)-5-fluoro-2-methylbenzamide; 3-chloro-N-(1-(5-(3-cyano-6-((3-fluoro-1-methylazetidin-3-yl)methoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-4-methylpiperidin-4-yl)picolinamide; N-((3S,4S)-1-(5-(3-cyano-6-ethoxypyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-3-hydroxypiperidin-4-yl)-3-methylbutanamide; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(4-hydroxy-4-(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)piperidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; and 3-chloro-N-((3S,4S)-1-(5-(3-cyano-6-ethoxypyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyrazin-2-yl)-3-hydroxypiperidin-4-yl)picolinamide; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting one or more fusion proteins of Table 1 and/or one or more RET kinase protein point mutations/insertions/deletions of Table 2 in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation of Tables 3 or 4; and (d) administering a second RET inhibitor, wherein the second RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of: N-(1-(5-(3-cyano-6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-4-methylpiperidin-4-yl)benzamide; 6-ethoxy-4-(6-(4-hydroxy-4-(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)piperidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(3-(pyridin-2-yloxy)azetidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridazin-3-yl)oxy)piperidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; (S)-6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(3-(pyridin-2-yloxy)pyrrolidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; N-(1-(5-(3-cyano-6-((3-fluoro-1-methylazetidin-3-yl)methoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-4-methylpiperidin-4-yl)-5-fluoro-2-methylbenzamide; 3-chloro-N-(1-(5-(3-cyano-6-((3-fluoro-1-methylazetidin-3-yl)methoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-4-methylpiperidin-4-yl)picolinamide; N-((3S,4S)-1-(5-(3-cyano-6-ethoxypyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-3-hydroxypiperidin-4-yl)-3-methylbutanamide; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(4-hydroxy-4-(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)piperidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; and 3-chloro-N-((3S,4S)-1-(5-(3-cyano-6-ethoxypyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyrazin-2-yl)-3-hydroxypiperidin-4-yl)picolinamide; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting the fusion protein KIF5B-RET in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has the RET inhibitor resistance mutation V804M, G810S, or G810R; and (d) administering a second RET inhibitor, wherein the second RET inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of: N-(1-(5-(3-cyano-6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-4-methylpiperidin-4-yl)benzamide; 6-ethoxy-4-(6-(4-hydroxy-4-(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)piperidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(3-(pyridin-2-yloxy)azetidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(4-((6-methoxypyridazin-3-yl)oxy)piperidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; (S)-6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(3-(pyridin-2-yloxy)pyrrolidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; N-(1-(5-(3-cyano-6-((3-fluoro-1-methylazetidin-3-yl)methoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-4-methylpiperidin-4-yl)-5-fluoro-2-methylbenzamide; 3-chloro-N-(1-(5-(3-cyano-6-((3-fluoro-1-methylazetidin-3-yl)methoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-4-methylpiperidin-4-yl)picolinamide; N-((3S,4S)-1-(5-(3-cyano-6-ethoxypyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyridin-2-yl)-3-hydroxypiperidin-4-yl)-3-methylbutanamide; 6-(2-hydroxy-2-methylpropoxy)-4-(6-(4-hydroxy-4-(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)piperidin-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridine-3-carbonitrile; and 3-chloro-N-((3S,4S)-1-(5-(3-cyano-6-ethoxypyrazolo[1,5-a]pyridin-4-yl)pyrazin-2-yl)-3-hydroxypiperidin-4-yl)picolinamide; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation.

In some embodiments provided herein, circulating tumor DNA can be used to monitor the responsiveness of a patient to a particular therapy (e.g., a first RET inhibitor, a second RET inhibitor, or a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof). For example, prior to starting treatment with a therapy as described herein (e.g., a first RET inhibitor, a second RET inhibitor, or a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof), a biological sample can be obtained from the subject and the level of circulating tumor DNA determined in the biological sample. This sample can be considered a baseline sample. The subject can then be administered one or more doses of a therapy as described herein (e.g., a first RET inhibitor, a second RET inhibitor, or a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof) and the levels of circulating tumor DNA can be monitored (e.g., after the first dose, second dose, third dose, etc. or after one week, two weeks, three weeks, four weeks, etc.). If the level of circulating tumor DNA is lower than the baseline sample (e.g., a 1% to about a 99% reduction, a 1% to about a 95% reduction, a 1% to about a 90% reduction, a 1% to about a 85% reduction, a 1% to about a 80% reduction, a 1% to about a 75% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 70% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 65% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 60% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 55% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 50% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 45% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 40% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 35% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 30% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 25% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 20% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 15% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 10% reduction, a 1% to about a 5% reduction, about a 5% to about a 99% reduction, about a 10% to about a 99% reduction, about a 15% to about a 99% reduction, about a 20% to about a 99% reduction, about a 25% to about a 99% reduction, about a 30% to about a 99% reduction, about a 35% to about a 99% reduction, about a 40% to about a 99% reduction, about a 45% to about a 99% reduction, about a 50% to about a 99% reduction, about a 55% to about a 99% reduction, about a 60% to about a 99% reduction, about a 65% to about a 99% reduction, about a 70% to about a 99% reduction, about a 75% to about a 95% reduction, about a 80% to about a 99% reduction, about a 90% reduction to about a 99% reduction, about a 95% to about a 99% reduction, about a 5% to about a 10% reduction, about a 5% to about a 25% reduction, about a 10% to about a 30% reduction, about a 20% to about a 40% reduction, about a 25% to about a 50% reduction, about a 35% to about a 55% reduction, about a 40% to about a 60% reduction, about a 50% reduction to about a 75% reduction, about a 60% reduction to about 80% reduction, or about a 65% to about a 85% reduction, etc.), this is indicative of responsiveness to the therapy. In some embodiments, the level of circulating tumor DNA is reduced such that it is below the detection limit of the instrument. In some embodiments, the level of circulating tumor DNA in a biological sample obtained from the patient (n) is compared to the sample taken just previous (n−1). If the level of circulating tumor DNA in the n sample is lower than the n−1 sample (e.g., a 1% to about a 99% reduction, a 1% to about a 95% reduction, a 1% to about a 90% reduction, a 1% to about a 85% reduction, a 1% to about a 80% reduction, a 1% to about a 75% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 70% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 65% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 60% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 55% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 50% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 45% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 40% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 35% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 30% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 25% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 20% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 15% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 10% reduction, a 1% to about a 5% reduction, about a 5% to about a 99% reduction, about a 10% to about a 99% reduction, about a 15% to about a 99% reduction, about a 20% to about a 99% reduction, about a 25% to about a 99% reduction, about a 30% to about a 99% reduction, about a 35% to about a 99% reduction, about a 40% to about a 99% reduction, about a 45% to about a 99% reduction, about a 50% to about a 99% reduction, about a 55% to about a 99% reduction, about a 60% to about a 99% reduction, about a 65% to about a 99% reduction, about a 70% to about a 99% reduction, about a 75% to about a 95% reduction, about a 80% to about a 99% reduction, about a 90% reduction to about a 99% reduction, about a 95% to about a 99% reduction, about a 5% to about a 10% reduction, about a 5% to about a 25% reduction, about a 10% to about a 30% reduction, about a 20% to about a 40% reduction, about a 25% to about a 50% reduction, about a 35% to about a 55% reduction, about a 40% to about a 60% reduction, about a 50% reduction to about a 75% reduction, about a 60% reduction to about 80% reduction, or about a 65% to about a 85% reduction, etc.), this is indicative of responsiveness to the therapy. In some embodiments, the level of circulating tumor DNA is reduced such that it is below the detection limit of the instrument. In the case of responsiveness to therapy, the subject can to be administered one or more doses of the therapy and the circulating tumor DNA can be continued to be monitored.

If the level of circulating tumor DNA in the sample is higher than the baseline (e.g., a 1% to about a 99% increase, a 1% to about a 95% increase, a 1% to about a 90% increase, a 1% to about a 85% increase, a 1% to about a 80% increase, a 1% to about a 75% increase, a 1% increase to about a 70% increase, a 1% increase to about a 65% increase, a 1% increase to about a 60% increase, a 1% increase to about a 55% increase, a 1% increase to about a 50% increase, a 1% increase to about a 45% increase, a 1% increase to about a 40% increase, a 1% increase to about a 35% increase, a 1% increase to about a 30% increase, a 1% increase to about a 25% increase, a 1% increase to about a 20% increase, a 1% increase to about a 15% increase, a 1% increase to about a 10% increase, a 1% to about a 5% increase, about a 5% to about a 99% increase, about a 10% to about a 99% increase, about a 15% to about a 99% increase, about a 20% to about a 99% increase, about a 25% to about a 99% increase, about a 30% to about a 99% increase, about a 35% to about a 99% increase, about a 40% to about a 99% increase, about a 45% to about a 99% increase, about a 50% to about a 99% increase, about a 55% to about a 99% increase, about a 60% to about a 99% increase, about a 65% to about a 99% increase, about a 70% to about a 99% increase, about a 75% to about a 95% increase, about a 80% to about a 99% increase, about a 90% increase to about a 99% increase, about a 95% to about a 99% increase, about a 5% to about a 10% increase, about a 5% to about a 25% increase, about a 10% to about a 30% increase, about a 20% to about a 40% increase, about a 25% to about a 50% increase, about a 35% to about a 55% increase, about a 40% to about a 60% increase, about a 50% increase to about a 75% increase, about a 60% increase to about 80% increase, or about a 65% to about a 85% increase, etc.), this can be indicative of resistance to the therapy. If the level of circulating tumor DNA in the n sample is higher than the n−1 sample (e.g., a 1% to about a 99% increase, a 1% to about a 95% increase, a 1% to about a 90% increase, a 1% to about a 85% increase, a 1% to about a 80% increase, a 1% to about a 75% increase, a 1% increase to about a 70% increase, a 1% increase to about a 65% increase, a 1% increase to about a 60% increase, a 1% increase to about a 55% increase, a 1% increase to about a 50% increase, a 1% increase to about a 45% increase, a 1% increase to about a 40% increase, a 1% increase to about a 35% increase, a 1% increase to about a 30% increase, a 1% increase to about a 25% increase, a 1% increase to about a 20% increase, a 1% increase to about a 15% increase, a 1% increase to about a 10% increase, a 1% to about a 5% increase, about a 5% to about a 99% increase, about a 10% to about a 99% increase, about a 15% to about a 99% increase, about a 20% to about a 99% increase, about a 25% to about a 99% increase, about a 30% to about a 99% increase, about a 35% to about a 99% increase, about a 40% to about a 99% increase, about a 45% to about a 99% increase, about a 50% to about a 99% increase, about a 55% to about a 99% increase, about a 60% to about a 99% increase, about a 65% to about a 99% increase, about a 70% to about a 99% increase, about a 75% to about a 95% increase, about a 80% to about a 99% increase, about a 90% increase to about a 99% increase, about a 95% to about a 99% increase, about a 5% to about a 10% increase, about a 5% to about a 25% increase, about a 10% to about a 30% increase, about a 20% to about a 40% increase, about a 25% to about a 50% increase, about a 35% to about a 55% increase, about a 40% to about a 60% increase, about a 50% increase to about a 75% increase, about a 60% increase to about 80% increase, or about a 65% to about a 85% increase, etc.), this can be indicative of resistance to the therapy. When resistance to therapy is suspected, the subject can undergo one or more of imaging, biopsy, surgery, or other diagnostic tests. In some embodiments, when resistance to the therapy is suspected, the subject can be administered (either as a monotherapy or in combination with the previous therapy) a compound capable of treating a RET inhibitor resistance (e.g., a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as provided herein). See, for example, Cancer Discov; 7(12); 1368-70 (2017); and Cancer Discov; 7(12); 1394-403 (2017).

In some embodiments provided herein, a protein biomarker can be used to monitor the responsiveness of a patient to a particular therapy (e.g., a first RET inhibitor, a second RET inhibitor, or a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof). For example, prior to starting treatment with a therapy as described herein (e.g., a first RET inhibitor, a second RET inhibitor, or a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof), a biological sample can be obtained from the subject and the level of a protein biomarker can be determined in the biological sample. This sample can be considered a base-line sample. The subject can then be administered one or more doses of a therapy as described herein (e.g., a first RET inhibitor, a second RET inhibitor, or a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof) and the levels of the protein biomarker can be monitored (e.g., after the first dose, second dose, third dose, etc. or after one week, two weeks, three weeks, four weeks, etc.). If the level of the protein biomarker is lower than the baseline sample (e.g., a 1% to about a 99% reduction, a 1% to about a 95% reduction, a 1% to about a 90% reduction, a 1% to about a 85% reduction, a 1% to about a 80% reduction, a 1% to about a 75% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 70% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 65% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 60% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 55% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 50% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 45% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 40% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 35% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 30% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 25% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 20% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 15% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 10% reduction, a 1% to about a 5% reduction, about a 5% to about a 99% reduction, about a 10% to about a 99% reduction, about a 15% to about a 99% reduction, about a 20% to about a 99% reduction, about a 25% to about a 99% reduction, about a 30% to about a 99% reduction, about a 35% to about a 99% reduction, about a 40% to about a 99% reduction, about a 45% to about a 99% reduction, about a 50% to about a 99% reduction, about a 55% to about a 99% reduction, about a 60% to about a 99% reduction, about a 65% to about a 99% reduction, about a 70% to about a 99% reduction, about a 75% to about a 95% reduction, about a 80% to about a 99% reduction, about a 90% reduction to about a 99% reduction, about a 95% to about a 99% reduction, about a 5% to about a 10% reduction, about a 5% to about a 25% reduction, about a 10% to about a 30% reduction, about a 20% to about a 40% reduction, about a 25% to about a 50% reduction, about a 35% to about a 55% reduction, about a 40% to about a 60% reduction, about a 50% reduction to about a 75% reduction, about a 60% reduction to about 80% reduction, or about a 65% to about a 85% reduction etc.), this is indicative of responsiveness to the therapy. In some embodiments, the level of the protein biomarker is reduced such that it is below the detection limit of the instrument. In some embodiments, the level of the protein biomarker in a biological sample obtained from the patient (n) is compared to the sample taken just previous (n−1). If the level of the protein biomarker in the n sample is lower than the n-1 sample (e.g., a 1% to about a 99% reduction, a 1% to about a 95% reduction, a 1% to about a 90% reduction, a 1% to about a 85% reduction, a 1% to about a 80% reduction, a 1% to about a 75% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 70% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 65% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 60% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 55% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 50% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 45% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 40% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 35% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 30% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 25% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 20% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 15% reduction, a 1% reduction to about a 10% reduction, a 1% to about a 5% reduction, about a 5% to about a 99% reduction, about a 10% to about a 99% reduction, about a 15% to about a 99% reduction, about a 20% to about a 99% reduction, about a 25% to about a 99% reduction, about a 30% to about a 99% reduction, about a 35% to about a 99% reduction, about a 40% to about a 99% reduction, about a 45% to about a 99% reduction, about a 50% to about a 99% reduction, about a 55% to about a 99% reduction, about a 60% to about a 99% reduction, about a 65% to about a 99% reduction, about a 70% to about a 99% reduction, about a 75% to about a 95% reduction, about a 80% to about a 99% reduction, about a 90% reduction to about a 99% reduction, about a 95% to about a 99% reduction, about a 5% to about a 10% reduction, about a 5% to about a 25% reduction, about a 10% to about a 30% reduction, about a 20% to about a 40% reduction, about a 25% to about a 50% reduction, about a 35% to about a 55% reduction, about a 40% to about a 60% reduction, about a 50% reduction to about a 75% reduction, about a 60% reduction to about 80% reduction, or about a 65% to about a 85% reduction, etc.), this is indicative of responsiveness to the therapy. In some embodiments, the level of the protein biomarker is reduced such that it is below the detection limit of the instrument. In the case of responsiveness to therapy, the subject can to be administered one or more doses of the therapy and the protein biomarker can be continued to be monitored.

If the level of the protein biomarker in the sample is higher than the baseline (e.g., a 1% to about a 99% increase, a 1% to about a 95% increase, a 1% to about a 90% increase, a 1% to about a 85% increase, a 1% to about a 80% increase, a 1% to about a 75% increase, a 1% increase to about a 70% increase, a 1% increase to about a 65% increase, a 1% increase to about a 60% increase, a 1% increase to about a 55% increase, a 1% increase to about a 50% increase, a 1% increase to about a 45% increase, a 1% increase to about a 40% increase, a 1% increase to about a 35% increase, a 1% increase to about a 30% increase, a 1% increase to about a 25% increase, a 1% increase to about a 20% increase, a 1% increase to about a 15% increase, a 1% increase to about a 10% increase, a 1% to about a 5% increase, about a 5% to about a 99% increase, about a 10% to about a 99% increase, about a 15% to about a 99% increase, about a 20% to about a 99% increase, about a 25% to about a 99% increase, about a 30% to about a 99% increase, about a 35% to about a 99% increase, about a 40% to about a 99% increase, about a 45% to about a 99% increase, about a 50% to about a 99% increase, about a 55% to about a 99% increase, about a 60% to about a 99% increase, about a 65% to about a 99% increase, about a 70% to about a 99% increase, about a 75% to about a 95% increase, about a 80% to about a 99% increase, about a 90% increase to about a 99% increase, about a 95% to about a 99% increase, about a 5% to about a 10% increase, about a 5% to about a 25% increase, about a 10% to about a 30% increase, about a 20% to about a 40% increase, about a 25% to about a 50% increase, about a 35% to about a 55% increase, about a 40% to about a 60% increase, about a 50% increase to about a 75% increase, about a 60% increase to about 80% increase, or about a 65% to about a 85% increase, etc.), this can be indicative of resistance to the therapy. If the level of the protein biomarker in the n sample is higher than the n−1 sample (e.g., a 1% to about a 99% increase, a 1% to about a 95% increase, a 1% to about a 90% increase, a 1% to about a 85% increase, a 1% to about a 80% increase, a 1% to about a 75% increase, a 1% increase to about a 70% increase, a 1% increase to about a 65% increase, a 1% increase to about a 60% increase, a 1% increase to about a 55% increase, a 1% increase to about a 50% increase, a 1% increase to about a 45% increase, a 1% increase to about a 40% increase, a 1% increase to about a 35% increase, a 1% increase to about a 30% increase, a 1% increase to about a 25% increase, a 1% increase to about a 20% increase, a 1% increase to about a 15% increase, a 1% increase to about a 10% increase, a 1% to about a 5% increase, about a 5% to about a 99% increase, about a 10% to about a 99% increase, about a 15% to about a 99% increase, about a 20% to about a 99% increase, about a 25% to about a 99% increase, about a 30% to about a 99% increase, about a 35% to about a 99% increase, about a 40% to about a 99% increase, about a 45% to about a 99% increase, about a 50% to about a 99% increase, about a 55% to about a 99% increase, about a 60% to about a 99% increase, about a 65% to about a 99% increase, about a 70% to about a 99% increase, about a 75% to about a 95% increase, about a 80% to about a 99% increase, about a 90% increase to about a 99% increase, about a 95% to about a 99% increase, about a 5% to about a 10% increase, about a 5% to about a 25% increase, about a 10% to about a 30% increase, about a 20% to about a 40% increase, about a 25% to about a 50% increase, about a 35% to about a 55% increase, about a 40% to about a 60% increase, about a 50% increase to about a 75% increase, about a 60% increase to about 80% increase, or about a 65% to about a 85% increase etc.), this can be indicative of resistance to the therapy. When resistance to therapy is suspected, the subject can undergo one or more of imaging, biopsy, surgery, or other diagnostic tests. In some embodiments, when resistance to the therapy is suspected, the subject can be administered (either as a monotherapy or in combination with the previous therapy) a compound capable of treating a RET inhibitor resistance (e.g., a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as provided herein).

In some embodiments, one or more protein biomarkers are monitored. The particular protein biomarkers to be monitored can depend on the type of cancer and can be readily identified by one having ordinary skill in the art. Non-limiting examples of protein biomarkers include: CA 125, carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), calcitonin, thyroglobulin, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), cortisol, CA 19-9, prolactin, hepatocyte growth factor, osteopontin, myeloperoxidase, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases 1, angiopoietin-1 (Ang-1), cytokeratin 19 (CK-19), tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1), chitinase 3 like-1 (YKL-40), galectin-3 (GAL-3), CYFRA 21-1 (cytokeratins), EPCAM (epithelial cell adhesion molecule), ProGRP (pro-gastrin-releasing peptide), and CEACAM (carcinoembryonic antigen). See, for example, Cohen J D, Li L, Wang Y, et al. Detection and localization of surgically resectable cancers with a multi-analyte blood test. Science; Published online 18 Jan. 2018. pii: eaar3247. DOI: 10.1126/science.aar3247; Fawaz M Makki et al. Serum biomarkers of papillary thyroid cancer. J. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2013; 42(1): 16; and Tatiana N. Zamay et al. Current and Prospective Protein Biomarkers of Lung Cancer. Cancers (Basel). 2017 November; 9(11): 155. In some embodiments, the biomarkers include one or more of CEA, calcitonin, thyroglobulin, ACTH, and cortisol. In some embodiments, the cancer is medullary thyroid cancer and the protein biomarkers include CEA and calcitonin. In some embodiments, the cancer is non-medullary thyroid cancer and the protein biomarker include thyroglobulin. In some embodiments, the biomarkers are ACTH and cortisol (e.g., when a patient as Cushing's disease related to their cancer).

Also provided herein are methods of treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject that include (a) administering one or more (e.g., two or more, three or more, four or more, five or more, or ten or more) doses of a first RET kinase inhibitor to a subject identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer (e.g., any of the types of RET-associated cancers described herein)(e.g., identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer using any of the exemplary methods described herein or known in the art); (b) after step (a), determining a level of circulating tumor DNA in a biological sample (e.g., a biological sample comprising blood, serum, or plasma) obtained from the subject; (c) administering a therapeutically effective amount of a second RET inhibitor or a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to a subject identified as having about the same or an elevated level of circulating tumor DNA as compared to a reference level of circulating tumor DNA (e.g., any of the reference levels of circulating tumor DNA described herein). In some examples of these methods, the reference level of circulating tumor DNA is a level of circulating tumor DNA in a biological sample obtained from the subject prior to step (a). Some embodiments of these methods further include determining the level of circulating tumor DNA in the biological sample obtained from the subject prior to step (a). In some examples of these methods, the reference level of circulating tumor DNA is a threshold level of circulating tumor DNA (e.g., an average level of circulating tumor DNA in a population of subjects having a similar RET-associated cancer and having a similar stage of the RET-associated cancer, but receiving a non-effective treatment or a placebo, or not yet receiving therapeutic treatment, or a level of circulating tumor DNA in a subject having a similar RET-associated cancer and having a similar stage of the RET-associated cancer, but receiving a non-effective treatment or a placebo, or not yet receiving therapeutic treatment). In some examples of these methods, the first RET inhibitor is selected from the group of: cabozantinib, vandetanib, alectinib, apatinib, sitravatinib, sorafenib, lenvatinib, ponatinib, dovitinib, sunitinib, foretinib, LOXO-292, BLU667, and BLU6864.

Also provided herein are methods of treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject that include administering a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, to a subject (i) identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer (e.g., any of the types of RET-associated cancers described herein) (e.g., identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer using any of the exemplary methods described herein or known in the art), (ii) previously administered one or more (e.g., two or more, three or more, four or more, five or more, or ten or more) doses of a second RET kinase inhibitor, and (ii) after the prior administration of the one or more doses of the second RET kinase inhibitor, identified as having about the same or an elevated level of circulating tumor DNA as compared to a reference level of circulating tumor DNA (e.g., any of the reference levels of circulating tumor DNA described herein or known in the art). In some embodiments of these methods, the reference level of circulating tumor DNA is a level of circulating tumor DNA in a biological sample (e.g., a biological sample comprising blood, plasma, or serum) obtained from the subject prior to the administration of the one or more doses of the second RET kinase inhibitor. Some embodiments of these methods further include determining the level of circulating tumor DNA in the biological sample obtained from the subject prior to administration of the one or more doses of the second RET kinase inhibitor. In some examples of these methods, the reference level of circulating tumor DNA is a threshold level of circulating tumor DNA (e.g., an average level of circulating tumor DNA in a population of subjects having a similar RET-associated cancer and having a similar stage of the RET-associated cancer, but receiving a non-effective treatment or a placebo, or not yet receiving therapeutic treatment, or a level of circulating tumor DNA in a subject having a similar RET-associated cancer and having a similar stage of the RET-associated cancer, but receiving a non-effective treatment or a placebo, or not yet receiving therapeutic treatment). In some embodiments of these methods, the second RET kinase inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of: cabozantinib, vandetanib, alectinib, apatinib, sitravatinib, sorafenib, lenvatinib, ponatinib, dovitinib, sunitinib, foretinib, LOXO-292, BLU667, and BLU6864.

Also provided herein are methods of treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject that include: (a) administering one or more doses of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as a monotherapy to a subject identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer (e.g., any of the types of RET-associated cancer described herein) (e.g., a subject identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer using any of the methods described herein or known in the art); (b) after step (a), determining a level of circulating tumor DNA in a biological sample (e.g., a biological sample comprising blood, serum, or plasma) obtained from the subject; (c) administering a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, and an additional therapeutic agent or treatment (e.g., any of the additional therapeutic agents or treatments of a RET-associated cancer described herein or known in the art) to a subject identified as having about the same or an elevated level of circulating tumor DNA as compared to a reference level of circulating tumor DNA (e.g., any of the exemplary reference levels of circulating tumor DNA described herein or known in the art). In some embodiments of these methods, the additional therapeutic agent is a second RET kinase inhibitor (e.g., a RET kinase inhibitor selected from the group of: cabozantinib, vandetanib, alectinib, apatinib, sitravatinib, sorafenib, lenvatinib, ponatinib, dovitinib, sunitinib, foretinib, LOXO-292, BLU667, and BLU6864. In some examples of any of these methods, the additional therapeutic agent or treatment comprises one or more of: radiation therapy, a chemotherapeutic agent (e.g., any of the exemplary chemotherapeutic agents described herein or known in the art), a checkpoint inhibitor (e.g., any of the exemplary checkpoint inhibitors described herein or known in the art), surgery (e.g., at least partial resection of the tumor) and one or more other kinase inhibitors (e.g., any of the exemplary kinase inhibitors described herein or known in the art). In some examples of these methods, the reference level of circulating tumor DNA is a level of circulating tumor DNA in a biological sample (e.g., a biological sample comprising blood, serum, or plasma) obtained from the subject prior to step (a). In some examples of these methods, the reference level of circulating tumor DNA is a threshold level of circulating tumor DNA (e.g., an average level of circulating tumor DNA in a population of subjects having a similar RET-associated cancer and having a similar stage of the RET-associated cancer, but receiving a non-effective treatment or a placebo, or not yet receiving therapeutic treatment, or a level of circulating tumor DNA in a subject having a similar RET-associated cancer and having a similar stage of the RET-associated cancer, but receiving a non-effective treatment or a placebo, or not yet receiving therapeutic treatment).

Also provided herein are methods of treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject that include: administering a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, and an additional therapeutic agent or treatment to a subject (i) identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer (e.g., any of the types of RET-associated cancer described herein) (e.g., a subject identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer using any of the methods described herein or known in the art), (ii) previously administered one or more doses of the compound of Formula I, or the pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as a monotherapy, and (ii) after administration of the one or more (e.g., two or more, three or more, four or more, five or more, or ten or more) doses of the compound of Formula I, or the pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as a monotherapy, identified as having about the same or an elevated level of circulating tumor DNA as compared to a reference level of circulating tumor DNA (e.g., any of the exemplary reference levels of circulating tumor DNA described herein). In some embodiments of these methods, the reference level of circulating tumor DNA is a level of circulating tumor DNA in a biological sample obtained from the subject prior to administration of the one or more (e.g., two or more, three or more, four or more, five or more, or ten or more) doses of the compound of Formula I, or the pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as a monotherapy. Some embodiments of these methods further include determining the level of circulating tumor DNA in the biological sample obtained from the subject prior to administration of the one or more doses of the compound of Formula I, or the pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as a monotherapy. In some examples of these methods, the reference level of circulating tumor DNA is a threshold level of circulating tumor DNA (e.g., an average level of circulating tumor DNA in a population of subjects having a similar RET-associated cancer and having a similar stage of the RET-associated cancer, but receiving a non-effective treatment or a placebo, or not yet receiving therapeutic treatment, or a level of circulating tumor DNA in a subject having a similar RET-associated cancer and having a similar stage of the RET-associated cancer, but receiving a non-effective treatment or a placebo, or not yet receiving therapeutic treatment). In some embodiments of this method, the additional therapeutic agent is a second RET kinase inhibitor (e.g., a second RET kinase inhibitor selected from the group of cabozantinib, vandetanib, alectinib, apatinib, sitravatinib, sorafenib, lenvatinib, ponatinib, dovitinib, sunitinib, foretinib, LOXO-292, BLU667, and BLU6864. In some embodiments of these methods, the additional therapeutic agent or treatment includes one or more of radiation therapy, a chemotherapeutic agent (e.g., any of the exemplary chemotherapeutic agents described herein or known in the art), a checkpoint inhibitor (e.g., any of the exemplary checkpoint inhibitors described herein or known in the art), surgery (e.g., at least partial resection of the tumor), and one or more other kinase inhibitors (e.g., any of the kinase inhibitors described herein or known in the art).

Also provided herein are methods of selecting a treatment for a subject that include: selecting a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, for a subject (i) identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer (e.g., any of the RET-associated cancers described herein) (e.g., a subject identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer using any of the methods described herein or known in the art), (ii) previously administered one or more (e.g., two or more, three or more, four or more, five or more, or ten or more) doses of a second RET kinase inhibitor (e.g., any of the RET kinase inhibitors described herein or known in the art), and (ii) after administration of the one or more doses of the second RET kinase inhibitor, identified as having about the same or an elevated level of circulating tumor DNA as compared to a reference level of circulating tumor DNA. In some embodiments of any of these methods, the reference level of circulating tumor DNA is a level of circulating tumor DNA in a biological sample (e.g., a bioplogical sample comprising blood, serum, or plasma) obtained from the subject prior to administration of the one or more doses of the second RET kinase inhibitor. Some embodiments of these methods further include determining the level of circulating tumor DNA in the biological sample obtained from the subject prior to administration of the one or more doses of the second RET kinase inhibitor. In some examples of these methods, the reference level of circulating tumor DNA is a threshold level of circulating tumor DNA (e.g., an average level of circulating tumor DNA in a population of subjects having a similar RET-associated cancer and having a similar stage of the RET-associated cancer, but receiving a non-effective treatment or a placebo, or not yet receiving therapeutic treatment, or a level of circulating tumor DNA in a subject having a similar RET-associated cancer and having a similar stage of the RET-associated cancer, but receiving a non-effective treatment or a placebo, or not yet receiving therapeutic treatment). In some embodiments of any these methods, the second RET kinase inhibitor is selected from the group of cabozantinib, vandetanib, alectinib, apatinib, sitravatinib, sorafenib, lenvatinib, ponatinib, dovitinib, sunitinib, foretinib, LOXO-292, BLU667, and BLU6864.

Also provided herein are methods of selecting a treatment for a subject that include selecting a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, and an additional therapeutic agent or treatment for a subject (i) identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer (e.g., any of the RET-associated cancers described herein or known in the art) (e.g., a subject diagnosed or identified as having a RET-associated cancer using any of the methods described herein or known in the art), (ii) previously administered one or more doses (e.g., two or more, three or more, four or more, five or more, or ten or more) of the compound of Formula I, or the pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as a monotherapy, and (ii) after administration of the one or more doses of the compound of Formula I, or the pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, identified as having about the same or an elevated level of circulating tumor DNA as compared to a reference level of circulating tumor DNA. In some embodiments of these methods, the reference level of circulating tumor DNA is a level of circulating tumor DNA in a biological sample (e.g., a biological sample comprising blood, serum, or plasma) obtained from the subject prior to administration of the one or more doses of the compound of Formula I, or the pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as a monotherapy. Some embodiments further include determining the level of circulating tumor DNA in the biological sample obtained from the subject prior to administration of the one or more doses of the compound of Formula I, or the pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as a monotherapy. In some examples of these methods, the reference level of circulating tumor DNA is a threshold level of circulating tumor DNA (e.g., an average level of circulating tumor DNA in a population of subjects having a similar RET-associated cancer and having a similar stage of the RET-associated cancer, but receiving a non-effective treatment or a placebo, or not yet receiving therapeutic treatment, or a level of circulating tumor DNA in a subject having a similar RET-associated cancer and having a similar stage of the RET-associated cancer, but receiving a non-effective treatment or a placebo, or not yet receiving therapeutic treatment). In some embodiments of any of these methods, the additional therapeutic agent is a second RET kinase inhibitor (e.g., a second RET kinase inhibitor selected from the group of: cabozantinib, vandetanib, alectinib, apatinib, sitravatinib, sorafenib, lenvatinib, ponatinib, dovitinib, sunitinib, foretinib, LOXO-292, BLU667, and BLU6864. In some embodiments of any of the methods described herein, the additional therapeutic agent or treatment includes one or more of radiation therapy, a chemotherapeutic agent (e.g., any of the examples of a chemotherapeutic agent described herein or known in the art), a checkpoint inhibitor (e.g., any of the checkpoint inhibitors described herein or known in the art), surgery (e.g., at least partial resection of the tumor), and one or more other kinase inhibitors (e.g., any of the other kinase inhibitors described herein or known in the art).

Also provided herein are methods of determining the efficacy of a treatment in a subject that include: (a) determining a first level of circulating tumor DNA in a biological sample (e.g., a biological sample including blood, serum, or plasma) obtained from a subject identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer at a first time point; (b) administering a treatment including one or more doses of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof to the subject, after the first time point and before a second time point; (c) determining a second level of circulating tumor DNA in a biological sample (e.g., a biological sample comprising blood, serum, or plasma) obtained from the subject at the second time point; and (d) identifying that the treatment is effective in a subject determined to have a decreased second level of circulating tumor DNA as compared to the first level of circulating tumor DNA; or identifying the treatment is not effective in a subject determined to have about the same or an elevated second level of circulating tumor DNA as compared to the first level of circulating tumor DNA. In some embodiments of these methods, the first time point and the second time point are about 1 week to about 1 year apart (e.g., about 1 week to about 10 months, about 1 week to about 8 months, about 1 week to about 6 months, about 1 week to about 4 months, about 1 week to about 3 months, about 1 week to about 2 months, about 1 week to about 1 month, or about 1 week to about 2 weeks).

Also provided herein are methods of determining whether a subject has developed resistance to a treatment that include: (a) determining a first level of circulating tumor DNA in a biological sample (e.g., a biological sample comprising blood, serum, or plasma) obtained from a subject identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated cancer at a first time point; (b) administering a treatment including one or more (e.g., two or more, three or more, four or more, five or more, or ten or more) doses of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof to the subject, after the first time point and before a second time point; (c) determining a second level of circulating tumor DNA in a biological sample obtained from the subject at the second time point; and (d) determining that a subject having a decreased second level of circulating tumor DNA as compared to the first level of circulating tumor DNA has not developed resistance to the treatment; or determining that a subject having about the same or an elevated second level of circulating tumor DNA as compared to the first level of circulating tumor DNA has developed resistance to the treatment. In some embodiments of these methods, the first time point and the second time point are about 1 week to about 1 year apart (e.g., about 1 week to about 10 months, about 1 week to about 8 months, about 1 week to about 6 months, about 1 week to about 4 months, about 1 week to about 3 months, about 1 week to about 2 months, about 1 week to about 1 month, or about 1 week to about 2 weeks).

Exemplary methods for detecting circulating tumor DNA are described in Moati et al., Clin. Res. Hepatol. Gastroenterol. Apr. 4, 2018; Oussalah et al., EBioMedicine Mar. 28, 2018; Moon et al., Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. Apr. 4, 2018; Solassaol et al., Cin. Chem. Lab. Med. Apr. 7, 2018; Arriola et al., Clin. Transl. Oncol. Apr. 5, 2018; Song et al., J. Circ. Biomark. Mar. 25, 2018; Aslibekyan et al., JAMA Cardiol. Apr. 4, 2018; Isbell et al., J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. Mar. 13, 2018; Boeckx et al., Clin. Colorectal Cancer Feb. 22, 2018; Anunobi et al., J. Surg. Res. Mar. 28, 2018; Tan et al., Medicine 97(13):e0197, 2018; Reithdorf et al., Transl. Androl. Urol. 6(6):1090-1110, 2017; Volckmar et al., Genes Chromosomes Cancer 57(3):123-139, 2018; and Lu et al., Chronic Dis. Transl. Med. 2(4):223-230, 2016. Additional methods for detecting circulating tumor DNA are known in the art.

In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a multikinase inhibitor, wherein the multikinase inhibitor is selected from vandetanib or cabozantinib; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; and (d) administering a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the multikinase inhibitor of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation.

In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a first multikinase inhibitor, wherein the mulitkinase inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of: vandetanib or cabozantinib; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; and (d) administering a compound of Formula I selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the multikinase inhibitor of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation.

In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting one or more fusion proteins of Table 1 and/or one or more RET kinase protein point mutations/insertions/deletions of Table 2 in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a multikinase inhibitor, wherein the multikinase inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of: vandetanib or cabozantinib; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation of Tables 3 or 4; and (d) administering a compound of Formula I selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the multikinase inhibitor of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation.

In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting the fusion protein KIF5B-RET in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a multikinase inhibitor, wherein the multikinase inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of vandetanib or cabozantinib; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has the RET inhibitor resistance mutation V804M, G810S, or G810R; and (d) administering a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the multikinase inhibitor of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation.

As another example, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; and (d) administering a multikinase inhibitor (e.g., vandetanib or cabozantinib, as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; and (d) administering a multikinase inhibitor (e.g., vandetanib or cabozantinib), as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting one or more fusion proteins of Table 1 and/or one or more RET kinase protein point mutations/insertions/deletions of Table 2 in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation of Tables 3 or 4; and (d) administering a multikinase inhibitor (e.g., vandetanib or cabozantinib), as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting the fusion protein KIF5B-RET in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has the RET inhibitor resistance mutation V804M, G810S, or G810R; and (d) administering a multikinase inhibitor (e.g., vandetanib or cabozantinib) as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation.

Also, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; and (d) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent (e.g., a second RET inhibitor, a second compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or immunotherapy) or anticancer therapy (e.g., surgery or radiation) if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; and (d) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent (e.g., a second RET inhibitor, a second compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or immunotherapy) or anticancer therapy (e.g., surgery or radiation) if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting one or more fusion proteins of Table 1 and/or one or more RET kinase protein point mutations/insertions/deletions of Table 2 in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation of Tables 3 or 4; and (d) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent (e.g., a second RET inhibitor, a second compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or immunotherapy) or anticancer therapy (e.g., surgery or radiation) if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, a second RET inhibitor selected from the group consisting of alectinib, cabozantinib, lenvatinib, nintedanib, ponatinib, regorafenib, sorafenib, sunitinib, vandetanib, RXDX-105 (agerafenib), LOXO-292, BLU-667 ((1S,4R)—N—((S)-1-(6-(4-fluoro-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)ethyl)-1-methoxy-4-(4-methyl-6-((5-methyl-1H-pyrazol-3-yl)amino)pyrimidin-2-yl)cyclohexane-1-carboxamide), BLU6864, DS-5010, GSK3179106, GSK3352589, and NMS-E668 is administered in step (d). In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting the fusion protein KIF5B-RET in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has the RET inhibitor resistance mutation V804M, G810S, or G810R; and (d) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent (e.g., a second RET inhibitor, a second compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or immunotherapy) or anticancer therapy (e.g., surgery or radiation) if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, a second RET inhibitor selected from the group consisting of alectinib, cabozantinib, lenvatinib, nintedanib, ponatinib, regorafenib, sorafenib, sunitinib, vandetanib, RXDX-105 (agerafenib), LOXO-292, BLU-667 ((1S,4R)—N—((S)-1-(6-(4-fluoro-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)ethyl)-1-methoxy-4-(4-methyl-6-((5-methyl-1H-pyrazol-3-yl)amino)pyrimidin-2-yl)cyclohexane-1-carboxamide), BLU6864, DS-5010, GSK3179106, GSK3352589, and NMS-E668 is administered in step (d).

Also, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) detecting at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation in a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject; and (d) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent (e.g., a second RET inhibitor, a second compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or immunotherapy) or anticancer therapy (e.g., surgery or radiation). In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) detecting at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation in a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject; and (d) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent (e.g., a second RET inhibitor, a second compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or immunotherapy) or anticancer therapy (e.g., surgery or radiation). In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting one or more fusion proteins of Table 1 and/or one or more RET kinase protein point mutations/insertions/deletions of Table 2 in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) detecting at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation of Tables 3 or 4 in a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject; and (d) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent (e.g., a second RET inhibitor, a second compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or immunotherapy) or anticancer therapy (e.g., surgery or radiation). In some embodiments, a second RET inhibitor selected from the group consisting of alectinib, cabozantinib, lenvatinib, nintedanib, ponatinib, regorafenib, sorafenib, sunitinib, vandetanib, RXDX-105 (agerafenib), LOXO-292, BLU-667 ((1S,4R)—N—((S)-1-(6-(4-fluoro-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)ethyl)-1-methoxy-4-(4-methyl-6-((5-methyl-1H-pyrazol-3-yl)amino)pyrimidin-2-yl)cyclohexane-1-carboxamide), BLU6864, DS-5010, GSK3179106, GSK3352589, and NMS-E668 is administered in step (d). In some embodiments, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting the fusion protein KIF5B-RET in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I selected from Examples 1-10, Examples 11-20, Examples 21-28, Examples 29-35, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) detecting the RET inhibitor resistance mutation V804M, G810S, or G810R in a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject; and (d) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent (e.g., a second RET inhibitor, a second compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or immunotherapy) or anticancer therapy (e.g., surgery or radiation). In some embodiments, a second RET inhibitor selected from the group consisting of alectinib, cabozantinib, lenvatinib, nintedanib, ponatinib, regorafenib, sorafenib, sunitinib, vandetanib, RXDX-105 (agerafenib), LOXO-292, BLU-667 ((1S,4R)—N—((S)-1-(6-(4-fluoro-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)pyridin-3-yl)ethyl)-1-methoxy-4-(4-methyl-6-((5-methyl-1H-pyrazol-3-yl)amino)pyrimidin-2-yl)cyclohexane-1-carboxamide), BLU6864, DS-5010, GSK3179106, GSK3352589, and NMS-E668 is administered in step (d).

Further provided herein is a method for treating lung cancer in a patient in need thereof, the method comprising administering to the patient a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, crizotinib, osimertinib, or any combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the lung cancer is a RET-associated cancer. For example, the method can include: (a) detecting a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the methods further comprises (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation (e.g., a MET dysregulation such as a MET gene amplification); and (d) administering a second therapeutic agent, wherein the second therapeutic agent is crizotinib, as a monotherapy or in conjunction with a compound of Formula I or pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I or pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some such embodiments, the method comprises (a) detecting one or more fusion proteins of Table 1 and/or one or more RET kinase protein point mutations/insertions of Table 2 in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I or pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In further embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation (e.g., a MET dysregulation such as a MET gene amplification); and (d) administering a second therapeutic agent, wherein the second therapeutic agent is crizotinib, as a monotherapy or in conjunction with a compound of Formula I or pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (e) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I or pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation.

In some embodiments, the lung cancer is an EGFR-associated cancer. For example, the method can include: (a) detecting a dysregulation of an EGFR gene, an EGFR kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of an EGFR inhibitor (e.g., osimertinib). In some embodiments, the methods further comprises (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same (e.g., a RET gene fusion); and (d) administering a compound of Formula I or pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as a monotherapy or in conjunction with the EGFR inhibitor (e.g., osimertinib) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same (e.g., a RET gene fusion); or (e) administering additional doses of the EGFR inhibitor (e.g., osimertinib) of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same (e.g., a RET gene fusion). In some such embodiments, the method comprises (a) detecting a dysregulation of an EGFR gene, an EGFR kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of osimertinib. In further embodiments, the methods further comprise (after (b)) (c) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has one or more fusion proteins of Table 1 and/or one or more RET kinase protein point mutations/insertions of Table 2; and (d) administering a compound of Formula I or pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, as a monotherapy or in conjunction with osimertinib to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has one or more fusion proteins of Table 1 and/or one or more RET kinase protein point mutations/insertions of Table 2; or (e) administering additional doses of the osimertinib of step (b) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have one or more fusion proteins of Table 1 and/or one or more RET kinase protein point mutations/insertions of Table 2.

The term “EGFR-associated cancer” as used herein refers to cancers associated with or having a dysregulation of a EGFR gene, a EGFR kinase, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same.

Also provided are methods of selecting a treatment for a subject having a cancer that include: identifying a subject having a cancer cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations; and selecting a treatment that includes administration of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations confer increased resistance to a cancer cell or tumor to treatment with a first RET inhibitor. In some embodiments, the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof is administered in combination with the first RET inhibitor. Also provided are methods of selecting a treatment for a subject having a cancer that include: selecting a treatment that includes administration of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof for a subject identified as having a cancer cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations. Also provided are methods of selecting a subject having a cancer for a treatment that does not include a first RET inhibitor as a monotherapy that include: identifying a subject having a cancer cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations; and selecting the identified subject for a treatment that includes a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. Also provided are methods of selecting a subject having a cancer for a treatment that does not include a first RET inhibitor as a monotherapy that include: selecting a subject identified as having a cancer cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations for a treatment that includes administration of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations include one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations listed in Tables 3 and 4. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations can include a substitution at amino acid position 804, e.g., V804M, V804L, or V804E, or a substitution amino at acid position 810, e.g., G810S, G810R, G810C, G810A, G810V, and G810D.

Also provided are methods of determining the likelihood that a subject having a cancer (e.g., a RET-associated cancer) will have a positive response to treatment with a first RET inhibitor as a monotherapy that include: determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations; and determining that a subject having a cancer cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations has a decreased likelihood of having a positive response (i.e. an increased likelihood of having a negative response) to treatment with a first RET inhibitor as a monotherapy. Also provided are methods of determining the likelihood that a subject having a cancer (e.g., a RET-associated cancer) will have a positive response to treatment with a first RET inhibitor as a monotherapy that include: determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations; and determining that a subject not having a cancer cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations has an increased likelihood of having a positive response to treatment with a first RET inhibitor as a monotherapy as compared to a subject having a cancer cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations. Also provided are methods of predicting the efficacy of treatment with a first RET inhibitor as a monotherapy in a subject having cancer that include: determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations; and determining that treatment with a first RET inhibitor as a monotherapy is less likely to be effective in a subject having a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations. Also provided are methods of predicting the efficacy of treatment with a first RET inhibitor as a monotherapy in a subject having cancer that include: determining that treatment with a first RET inhibitor as a monotherapy is less likely to be effective in a subject having a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations confer increased resistance to a cancer cell or tumor to treatment with the first RET inhibitor. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations include one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations listed in Tables 3 and 4. For example, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations can include a substitution at amino acid position 804, e.g., V804M, V804L, or V804E, or a substitution amino at acid position 810, e.g., G810S, G810R, G810C, G810A, G810V, and G810D.

Also provided are methods of treating a subject having a cancer that include: (a) administering one or more doses of a first RET inhibitor to the subject for a period of time; (b) after (a), determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; and (c) administering a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (d) administering additional doses of the first RET inhibitor of step (a) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, where the subject is administered additional doses of the first RET inhibitor of step (a), the subject can also be administered another anticancer agent (e.g., a second RET inhibitor or a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or immunotherapy). In some embodiments, the additional anticancer agent is any anticancer agent known in the art. For example, the additional anticancer agent can be another RET inhibitor (e.g., a second RET inhibitor). In some embodiments, the additional anticancer agent can be an immunotherapy. In some embodiments of step (c), another RET inhibitor can be the first RET inhibitor administered in step (a). In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations confer increased resistance to a cancer cell or tumor to treatment with the first RET inhibitor. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations include one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations listed in Tables 3 and 4. For example, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations can include a substitution at amino acid position 804, e.g., V804M, V804L, or V804E, or a substitution at amino acid position 810, e.g., G810S, G810R, G810C, G810A, G810V, and G810D.

Also provided are methods of treating a subject having a cancer that include: (a) administering one or more doses of a first RET inhibitor to the subject for a period of time; (b) after (a), determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; and (c) administering a second RET inhibitor as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (d) administering additional doses of the first RET inhibitor step (a) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, where the subject is administered additional doses of the first RET inhibitor of step (a), the subject can also be administered another anticancer agent. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations confer increased resistance to a cancer cell or tumor to treatment with the first RET inhibitor. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations include one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations listed in Tables 3 and 4. For example, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations can include a substitution at amino acid position 804, e.g., V804M, V804L, or V804E, or a substitution at amino acid position 810, e.g., G810S, G810R, G810C, G810A, G810V, and G810D. In some embodiments, the additional anticancer agent is any anticancer agent known in the art. For example, the additional anticancer agent is another RET inhibitor (e.g., a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof). In some embodiments, the additional anticancer agent is an immunotherapy.

Also provided are methods of treating a subject having a cancer (e.g., a RET-associated cancer) that include: (a) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from a subject having a cancer and previously administered one or more doses of a first RET inhibitor, has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations; and (b) administering a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (c) administering additional doses of the first RET inhibitor previously administered to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, where the subject is administered additional doses of the first RET inhibitor previously administered to the subject, the subject can also be administered another anticancer agent (e.g., a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or immunotherapy). In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations confer increased resistance to a cancer cell or tumor to treatment with the first RET inhibitor. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations include one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations listed in Tables 3 and 4. For example, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations can include a substitution at amino acid position 804, e.g., V804M, V804L, or V804E, or a substitution at amino acid position 810, e.g., G810S, G810R, G810C, G810A, G810V, and G810D. In some embodiments, the additional anticancer agent is any anticancer agent known in the art. For example, the additional anticancer agent can be another RET inhibitor (e.g., a second RET inhibitor). In some embodiments, the additional anticancer agent can be an immunotherapy. In some embodiments of step (b), another anticancer agent can be the first RET inhibitor administered in step (a).

Also provided are methods of treating a subject having a cancer that include: (a) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from a subject having a cancer and previously administered one or more doses of a first RET inhibitor has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations; and (b) administering a second RET inhibitor as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (c) administering additional doses of the first RET inhibitor previously administered to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, where the subject is administered additional doses of the first RET inhibitor previously administered to the subject, the subject can also be administered another anticancer agent. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations confer increased resistance to a cancer cell or tumor to treatment with the first RET inhibitor. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations include one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations listed in Tables 3 and 4. For example, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations can include a substitution at amino acid position 804, e.g., V804M, V804L, or V804E, or a substitution at amino acid position 810, e.g., G810S, G810R, G810C, G810A, G810V, and G810D. In some embodiments, the additional anticancer agent is any anticancer agent known in the art. For example, the additional anticancer agent is another RET inhibitor (e.g., a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof). In some embodiments, the additional anticancer agent is an immunotherapy. In some embodiments of (b), another anticancer agent can be the first RET inhibitor administered in step (a).

In some embodiments, a RET-associated cancer as described herein can occur in a subject along with a dysregulation of another gene, another protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same.

For example, a RET-associated cancer that exhibits a RET fusion can occur in a subject along with one or more of: a dysregulation of a MET gene, a MET protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same; a dysregulation of a PIK3CA gene, a PIK3CA protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same; a dysregulation of a KRAS gene, a KRAS protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same; a dysregulation of a EGFR gene, a EGFR protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same (e.g., an amplification of a EGFR gene); a dysregulation of a FGFR2 gene, a FGFR2 protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same (eg., a fusion of an FGFR2 gene or an FGFR2 protein); a dysregulation of a CDK4 gene, a CDK4 protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same (e.g., an amplication of a CDK4 gene); a dysregulation of a mTOR gene, a mTOR protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same; a dysregulation of a CDKN2A gene, a CDKN2A protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same (e.g., a deletion in a CDKN2A gene or a CDKN2A protein); a dysregulation of a CDKN2B gene, a CDKN2B protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same (e.g., a deletion in a CDKN2B gene or a CDKN2B protein); a dysregulation of a NF1 gene, a NF1 protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same; a dysregulation of a MYC gene, a MYC protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same (e.g., an amplification in a MYC gene); a dysregulation of a MDM2 gene, a MDM2 protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same (e.g., an amplification in a MDM2 gene); a dysregulation of a GNAS gene, a GNAS protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same; a dysregulation of a BRCA2 gene, a BRCA2 protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same; a dysregulation of an EHMT2 gene, an EHMT2 protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same; a dysregulation of a SOS1 gene, a SOS1 protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same.

In some embodiments, a RET-associated cancer that exhibits a mutation of a RET gene and/or a RET protein can occur in a subject along with one or more of: a dysregulation of a PIK3CA gene, a PIK3CA protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same; a dysregulation of a KRAS gene, a KRAS protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same; a dysregulation of a EGFR gene, a EGFR protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same; a dysregulation of a FGFR1 gene, a FGFR1 protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same (e.g, an amplification of a FGFR1 gene); a dysregulation of a FGFR2 gene, a FGFR2 protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same (e.g., an amplification of a FGFR2 gene); a dysregulation of a FGFR3 gene, a FGFR3 protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same (e.g., a fusion of a FGFR3 gene or a FGFR3 protein); a dysregulation of a ERBB2 (also called HER2) gene, a ERBB2 protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same (e.g., an amplification of ERBB2 gene); and a dysregulation of a KIT gene, a KIT protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same.

In some embodiments, a RET-associated cancer that exhibits an amplification of a RET gene can occur in a patient along with one or more additional kinase amplifications. For example, am amplification in a FGFR1 gene; an amplification in a FGFR2 gene; an amplification in a FGFR3 gene; an amplification of a FGFR4 gene; an amplification of a CDK4 gene; and an amplification in a CDK6 gene.

In some embodiments, wherein a RET-assocated cancer as described herein can occur in a subject along with a dysregulation in another kinase, the methods described herein can further comprise administration of an additional therapeutic agent that targets and/or treats the dysregulation in the other kinase. For example, provided herein are methods for treating a RET-associated cancer in a subject in need of such treatment, the method comprising (a) detecting a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same in a sample from the subject; and (b) administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the method further comprises (c) detecting a dysregulation in another kinase in a sample from the subject; and (d) administering to the subject a therapeutic agent that targets and/or treats the dysregulation in the other kinase. In some embodiments, the administration of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof is done concurrently, sequentially, or serially. In some embodiments, the detetcting steps (a) and (c) can be done simultaneously or sequentially in any order.

Additional therapeutic agents that target and/or treat the dysregulation of the other kinase can include any known inhibitor of the other kinase. Examples of such agents are as follows:

Exemplary PARP inhibitors include: 3-aminobenzamide (INO-1001), 5-aminoisoquinoline, ABT472, ABT767, AG140361, AG14032, ANG2864, ANG3186, AZD2281, AZD2461, BGP-15, BSI101, BSI401, CEP6800, CEP8983, CK102, CEP9722 (prodrug of CEP8983), CPH101 with CPH102, DR2313, E7016 (GPI-21016), E7449, GP16150, IMP4297, IMP04149, IN01002, IN01003, JPI283, JPI289, KU0687, KU58948, niraparib (MK-4827), NT125, olaparib (AZD2281), ONO-1924H, ON02231, pamiparib (BGB-290), PJ-34, rucaparib (AG014699), SC10914, SOMCL9112, talazoparib (BMN-673), and veliparib (ABT-888).

Exemplary CDK 4/6 inhibitors include: palbociclib (PD0332991), abemaciclib (LY2835219), ribociclib (LEE011), trilaciclib (G1T28), voruciclib, and G1T38.

Exemplary ERBB2 (HER2/neu) inhibitors include: afatinib, afatinib, dacomitinib (PF-00299804), DS8201-a, erlontinib, gefitinib, KU004, lapatinib, laptinib ditosylate, MM-111, mubritinib (TAK-165), neratinib, pyrotinib (HTI-1001), tucatinib (ONT-380, ARRY-380), 7C3, cetuximab, HER2-BsAb, hersintuzumab, margetuximab, MI130004, NeuVax, paitumumab, pertuzumab, SYD985, trastuzumab, and trastuzumab emtansine.

Exemplary inhibitors of amplified ERBB2 (HER2/neu) include dacomitinib (PF-00299804), lapatinib, neratinib, pertuzumab, trastuzumab, and trastuzumab emtansine.

Exemplary EGFR inhibitors include: AC0010, afatinib, AP26113, ASP8273, avatinib, avitinib, AZD3759, BMS-690514, brigatinib, canertinib, Cap-701, CHMFL-EGFR-202, CUDC-101, dacomitinib, EAI045, EGF816, erlontinib, erlotinib, gefitinib, GNS-1481, GNS-1486, G66976, HS-10296, icotinib, KU004, lapatinib, nazartinib, neratinib, olmutinib (HM61713, BI 1482694), osimertinib, osimertinib (AZD9291), pelitinib, PF-06747775, PKC412, pyrotinib (HTI-1001), rocilentinib, vandetanib, varlitinib, XL647, 7C3, cetuximab, depatuxizumab mafodotin (ABT-414), matuzumab, nimotuzumab, panitumumab, and zalutumumab.

Exemplary wild-type EGFR inhibitors include: afatinib, BMS-690514, canertinib, CUDC-101, dacomitinib, erlotinib, gefitinib, lapatinib, neratinib, pelitinib, vandetanib, varlitinib, XL647, cetuximab, matuzumab, nimotuzumab, panitumumab, and zalutumumab.

Exemplary inhibitors of mutated EGFR include: AC0010, afatinib, AP26113, ASP8273, avatinib, avitinib, AZD3759, BMS-690514, brigatinib, canertinib, Cap-701, CHMFL-EGFR-202, CUDC-101, dacomitinib, EAI045, EGF816, GNS-1481, GNS-1486, G66976, HS-10296, icotinib, nazartinib, neratinib, olmutinib (HM61713, BI 1482694), osimertinib (AZD9291), PF-06747775, PKC412, rocilentinib, vandetanib, varlitinib, and cetuximab.

An exemplary inhibitor of amplified EGFR is depatuxizumab mafodotin (ABT-414).

Exemplary inhibitors of FGFR include: ASP5878, AZD4547, BGJ398, BLU9931, brivatinib, cediranib, DEBIO 1347, derazantinib (ARQ-087), dovitinib (CHIR258), E7090, ENMD-2076, erdafitinib (JNJ-42756293), FGF 401, FIIN-1, FRIN-1, INCB054828, L16H50, lenvatinib, lucitanib, LY2874455, nintedanib, NP603, orantinib (SU6668), pazopanib, PBI05204, PD173074, ponatinib, PRN1371, regorafenib, rogaratinib (BAY-1163877), S49076, SOMCL-085, SU5402, sunitinib, TAS-120, FP-1039, GAL-F2, GAL-FR21, GAL-FR22, GAL-FR23, GP369, hLD1.vb, LD1, MFGR1877S, MM-161, PRO-001, and R3Mab.

Exemplary inhibitors of FGFR fusions include: BGJ398, DEBIO 1347, derazantinib (ARQ-087), E7090, erdafitinib (JNJ-42756293), lucitanib, and TAS-120.

Exemplary inhibitors of FGFR1, FGFR2, and FGFR3 include: AZD4547, BGJ398, DEBIO 1347, E7090, INCB054828, S49076, SOMCL-085, and TAS-120.

Exemplary inhibitors of FGF4 include: BLU-554, BLU9931, NVP-FGF401, and hLD1.vb.

Exemplary inhibitors of amplified FGFR1 include: AZD4547, BGJ398, DEBIO 1347, derazantinib (ARQ-087), erdafitinib (JNJ-42756293), INCB054828, and lucitanib.

Exemplary inhibitors of amplified FGFR2 include: AZD4547, DEBIO 1347, derazantinib (ARQ-087), lucitanib, regorafenib, and TAS-120.

An exemplary inhibitor of amplified FGFR3 is AZD4547.

Exemplary MEK inhibitors include: AZD8330 (ARRY-424704), AZD6244 (ARRY-142866), BI-847325, binimetinib, BIX02188, BIX02189, CH4987655, CH5126766, CI-1040, cobemetinib (GDC-0973), EBI-1051, G-573, G8935, GDC-0623, Myricetin, nobiletin, PD0325901, PD184161, PD318088, PD98059, PD334581, pimasertib (AS-703026), refametinib (RDEA119, BAY 869766), selumentinib (AZD6244), SL-327, TAK-733, trametinib, and U0126.

Exemplary KRAS inhibitors include: 0375-0604, a covalent quinazoline-based switch II pocket (SIIP) compound, ARS-1620, AZD4785, and LP1.

Exemplary PI3K inhibitors include: 3-methyladenine, A66, alpelisib (BYL719), AMG319, apitolisib (GDC-0980, RG7422), AS-252424, AS-604850, AS-605240, AZD6842, AZD8186, AZD8835, BGT226 (NVP-BGT226), buparlisib (BKM120), CAY10505, CH5132799, copanlisib (BAY 80-6946), CUDC-907, CZC24832, dactolisib (BEZ235, NVP-BEZ235), DS7423, duvelisib (IPI-145, INK1197), GDC-0032, GDC-0084, GDC-0326, gedatolisib (PF-05212384, PKI-5587), GNE-317, GS-9820, GSK1059615, GSK2292767, GSK2636771, HS-173, IC-87114, Idelalisib (CAL-101, GS-1101), IPI-145, IPI-3063, IPI-549, LY294002, LY3023414, nemiralisib (GSK2269557), omipalisib (GSK2126458, GSK458), PF-04691502, PF-4989216, PI-103, PI-3065, pictilisib (GDC-0941), PIK-293, PIK-294, PIK-75, PIK-90, PIK-93, PIK-III, pilaralisib (XL147), PKI-587, PP-110, PQR309, PQR309, PW-12, PX-866, quercetin, S14161, SAR245409 (XL765), SAR260301, SAR405, serabelisib (INK-1117, MLN-1117, TAK-1117), SF-1126, SF-2523, SN32976, taselisib (GDC-0032), TB101110, TG100-115, TG100-713, TGR-1202, TGX-221, umbralisib (TGR-1202), voxtalisib (XL765, SAR245409), VPS34-IN1, VS-5584 (SB2343), WJD008, wortmannin, and ZSTK474.

Exemplary KIT inhibitors include: AMG 706, amuvatinib (MP-470), APcK110, axitinib (AG-013736), AZD2932, dasatinib (BMS-354825), dovitinib (TKI-258, CHIR-258), EXEL-0862, imatinib, KI-328, masitinib (AB1010), midostaurin, MLN518, motesanib, N3-(6-aminopyridin-3-yl)-N1-(2-cyclopentylethyl)-4-methylisophthalamide, nilotinib, OSI-930, pazopanib (GW786034), pexidartinib (PLX3397), PKC412, PLX647, PP1, quizartinib (AC220), regorafenib (BAY 73-4506), semaxinib (SU 5416), sitravatinib (MGCD516), sorafenib, STI571, SU11248, SU9529, sunitinib, telatinib, tivozanib (AV-951), tyrphostin AG 1296, VX-322, and WBZ_4.

Exemplary MDM2 inhibitors include: (−)-parthenolide, ALRN6924, AM-8553, AMG232, CGM-097, DS-3032b, GEM240, HDM201, HLI98, idasanutlin (RG-7338), JapA, MI-219, MI-219, MI-319, MI-77301 (SAR405838), MK4828, MK-8242, MX69, NSC 207895 (XI-006), Nutlin-3, Nutlin-3a, Nutlin-3b, NVP-CFC218, NVP-CGM097, PXn727/822, RG7112, RO2468, RO5353, RO5503781, serdemetan (JNJ-26854165), SP-141, and YH239-EE.

Exemplary inhibitors of amplified MDM2 include: AM-8553, AMG232, DS-3032b, MI-77301 (SAR405838), NSC 207895 (XI-006), Nutlin-3a, NVP-CFC218, NVP-CGM097, and RG7112.

Exemplary inhibitors of MET include: (−)-Oleocanthal, ABBV-399, AMG-208, AMG-337, AMG-458, BAY-853474, BMS-754807, BMS-777607, BMS-794833, cabozantinib (XL184, BMS-907351), capmatinib (INCB28060), crizotinib (PF-02341066), DE605, foretinib (GSK1363089, XL880), glesatinib (MGCD265), golvatinib (E7050), INCB028060, JNJ-38877605, KRC-408, merestinib (LY2801653), MK-2461, MK8033, NPS-1034, NVP-BVU972, PF-04217903, PHA-665752, S49076, savolitinib (AZD6094, HMPL-504), SGX-523, SU11274, TAS-115, tepotinib (EMD 1214063, MSC2156119J), volitinib, CE-355621, and Onartuzumab.

Exemplary inhibitors of mTOR include: anthracimycin, apitolisib (GDC-0980, RG7422), AZD-8055, BGT226 (NVP-BGT226), CC-223, CZ415, dactolisib (BEZ235, NVP-BEZ235), DS7423, everolimus (RAD001), GDC-0084, GDC-0349, gedatolisib (PF-05212384, PKI-5587), GSK1059615, INK128, KU-0063794, LY3023414, MLN0128, omipalisib (GSK2126458, GSK458), OSI-027, OSU-53, Palomid 529 (P529), PF-04691502, PI-103, PKI-587, PP242, PQR309, ridafarolimus (AP-23573), sapanisertib (INK 128, MLN0128), SAR245409 (XL765), SF-1126, SF2523, sirolimus (rapamycin), SN32976, TAK228, temsirolimus (CCI-779, NSC 683864), Torin 1, Torin 2, torkinib (PP242), umirolimus, vistusertib (AZD2014), voxtalisib (XL765, SAR245409), VS-5584, VS-5584 (SB2343), WAY-600, WYE-125132 (WYE-132), WYE-354, WYE-687, XL388, and zotarolimus (ABT-578).

Exemplary inhibitors of MYC include: 10058-F4, 10074-G5, and KSI-3716.

Exemplary inhibitors of EHMT2 include: 2-(4,4-difluoropiperidin-1-yl)-N-(1-isopropylpiperidin-4-yl)-6-methoxy-7-(3-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)propoxy)quinazolin-4-amine; 2-(4-isopropyl-1,4-diazepan-1-yl)-N-(1-isopropylpiperidin-4-yl)-6-methoxy-7-(3-(piperidin-1-yl)propoxy)quinazolin-4-amine; A-366; BIX-01294 (BIX); BIX-01338; BRD4770; DCG066; EZM8266; N-(1-isopropylpiperidin-4-yl)-6-methoxy-2-(4-methyl-1,4-diazepan-1-yl)-7-(3-(piperidin-1-yl)propoxy)quinazolin-4-amine; UNC0224; UNC0321; UNC0631; UNC0638 (2-cyclohexyl-6-methoxy-N-[1-(1-methylethyl)-4-piperidinyl]-7-[3-(1-pyrrolidinyl)propoxy]-4-quinazolinamine); UNC0642 (2-(4,4-Difluoro-1-piperidinyl)-6-methoxy-N-[1-(1-methylethyl)-4-piperidinyl]-7-[3-(1-pyrrolidinyl)propoxy]-4-quinazolinamine); and UNC0646. Additional examples of an EHMT2 inhibitor are known in the art.

Exemplary inhibitors of SOS1 include those disclosed in PCT Publication No. WO 2018/115380, incorporated herein by reference. Other examples of a SOS1 inhibitor are known in the art.

The phrase “dysregulation of a kinase gene, a kinase protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same” refers to a genetic mutation (e.g., a chromosomal translocation that results in the expression of a fusion protein including a kinase domain and a fusion partner, a mutation in a kinase gene that results in the expression of a protein that includes a deletion of at least one amino acid as compared to a wildtype kinase protein, a mutation in a kinase gene that results in the expression of a kinase protein with one or more point mutations as compared to a wildtype kinase protein, a mutation in a kinase gene that results in the expression of a kinase protein with at least one inserted amino acid as compared to a wildtype kinase protein, a gene duplication that results in an increased level of kinase protein in a cell, or a mutation in a regulatory sequence (e.g., a promoter and/or enhancer) that results in an increased level of kinase protein in a cell), an alternative spliced version of a mRNA that results in a kinase protein having a deletion of at least one amino acid in the protein as compared to the wild-type kinase protein), or increased expression (e.g., increased levels) of a wildtype kinase protein in a mammalian cell due to aberrant cell signaling and/or dysregulated autocrine/paracrine signaling (e.g., as compared to a control non-cancerous cell). As another example, a dysregulation of a kinase gene, a kinase protein, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same, can be a mutation in a kinase gene that encodes a kinase protein that is constitutively active or has increased activity as compared to a kinase protein encoded by a kinase gene that does not include the mutation. For example, a dysregulation of a kinase gene, a kinase protein, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same, can be the result of a gene or chromosome translocation which results in the expression of a fusion protein that contains a first portion of a kinase protein that includes a functional kinase domain, and a second portion of a partner protein (i.e., that is not the primary protein). In some examples, dysregulation of a kinase gene, a kinase protein, or expression or activity or level of any of the same can be a result of a gene translocation of one kinase gene with a different gene. In some such embodiments, a kinase is selected from the group consisting of ALK, BRAF, CDK4, EGFR, FGFR1, FGFR2, FGFR3, HER2, KIT, MEK, MET, mTOR, PIK3CA, RAF, and ROS1.

The phrase “dysregulation of a non-kinase gene, a non-kinase protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same” refers to a genetic mutation (e.g., a chromosomal translocation that results in the expression of a fusion protein including a domain of the non-kinase protein and a fusion partner, a mutation in a non-kinase gene that results in the expression of a non-kinase protein that includes a deletion of at least one amino acid as compared to a wildtype protein, a mutation in a non-kinase gene that results in the expression of a non-kinase protein with one or more point mutations as compared to a wildtype non-kinase protein, a mutation in a gene that results in the expression of a non-kinase protein with at least one inserted amino acid as compared to a wildtype non-kinase protein, a gene duplication that results in an altered level of non-kinase protein in a cell, or a mutation in a regulatory sequence (e.g., a promoter and/or enhancer) that results in altered level of non-kinase protein in a cell), an alternative spliced version of a mRNA that results in a non-kinase protein having a deletion of at least one amino acid in the non-kinase protein as compared to the wild-type non-kinase protein), or altered expression (e.g., altered levels) of a wildtype non-kinase protein in a mammalian cell due to aberrant cell signaling and/or dysregulated autocrine/paracrine signaling (e.g., as compared to a control non-cancerous cell). In some embodiments, an altered level of a non-kinase protein in a cell can be an increase in the level of the non-kinase protein in a cell. For example, dysregulation of a non-kinase oncogene can result in an increased level of the oncogenic non-kinase protein in a cell. In some embodiments, an altered level of a non-kinase protein in a cell can be a decrease in the level of the non-kinase protein in a cell. For example, dysregulation of a tumor suppressor can result in a decreased level of the tumor suppressor protein in a cell. As another example, a dysregulation of a non-kinase gene, a non-kinase protein, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same, can be a mutation in a non-kinase gene that encodes a non-kinase protein that is constitutively active or has increased activity as compared to a non-kinase protein encoded by a non-kinase gene that does not include the mutation. As another example, a dysregulation of a non-kinase gene, a non-kinase protein, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same, can be a mutation in a non-kinase gene that encodes a non-kinase protein that is constitutively inactive or has decreased activity as compared to a non-kinase protein encoded by a non-kinase gene that does not include the mutation. For example, a dysregulation of a non-kinase gene, a non-kinase protein, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same, can be the result of a gene or chromosome translocation which results in the expression of a fusion protein that contains a first portion of a non-kinase protein, and a second portion of a partner protein (i.e., that is not the primary protein). In some examples, dysregulation of a non-kinase gene, a non-kinase protein, or expression or activity or level of any of the same can be a result of a gene translocation of one non-kinase gene with a different gene. In some such embodiments, a non-kinase can be selected from the group consisting of aromatase, BRCA2, CDK2NB, CDKN2A, EHMT2, GNAS, MDM2, Myc, NF1, RAS (e.g., KRAS), and SOS1.

Treatment of a patient having a cancer with a multi-kinase inhibitor (MKI) or target-specific inhibitor (e.g., a BRAF inhibitor, a EGFR inhibitor, a MEK inhibitor, an ALK inhibitor, a ROS1 inhibitor, a MET inhibitor, an aromatase inhibitor, a RAF inhibitor, or a RAS inhibitor) can result in dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of the same in the cancer, and/or resistance to a RET inhibitor. See, e.g., Bhinge et al., Oncotarget 8:27155-27165, 2017; Chang et al., Yonsei Med. J. 58:9-18, 2017; and Lopez-Delisle et al., doi: 10.1038/s41388-017-0039-5, Oncogene 2018.

Treatment of a patient having a cancer with a RET inhibitor in combination with a multi-kinase inhibitor or a target-specific inhibitor (e.g., a BRAF inhibitor, a EGFR inhibitor, a MEK inhibitor, an ALK inhibitor, a ROS1 inhibitor, a MET inhibitor, an aromatase inhibitor, a RAF inhibitor, or a RAS inhibitor) can have increased therapeutic efficacy as compared to treatment of the same patient or a similar patient with the RET inhibitor as a monotherapy, or the multi-kinase inhibitor or the target-specific inhibitor as a monotherapy. See, e.g., Tang et al., doi: 10.1038/modpatho.2017.109, Mod. Pathol. 2017; Andreucci et al., Oncotarget 7:80543-80553, 2017; Nelson-Taylor et al., Mol. Cancer Ther. 16:1623-1633, 2017; and Kato et al., Clin. Cancer Res. 23:1988-1997, 2017.

Provided herein are methods of treating a patient having a cancer (e.g., any of the cancers described herein) and previously administered a multi-kinase inhibitor (MKI) or a target-specific inhibitor (e.g., a BRAF inhibitor, a EGFR inhibitor, a MEK inhibitor, an ALK inhibitor, a ROS1 inhibitor, a MET inhibitor, an aromatase inhibitor, a RAF inhibitor, or a RAS inhibitor) (e.g., as a monotherapy) that include: administering to the patient (i) a therapeutically effective dose of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy, or (ii) a therapeutically effective dose of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, and a therapeutically effective dose of the previously administered MKI or the previously administered target-specific inhibitor.

Provided herein are methods of treating a patient having a cancer (e.g., any of the cancers described herein) previously administered a MKI or a target-specific inhibitor (e.g., a BRAF inhibitor, a EGFR inhibitor, a MEK inhibitor, an ALK inhibitor, a ROS1 inhibitor, a MET inhibitor, an aromatase inhibitor, a RAF inhibitor, or a RAS inhibitor) (e.g., as a monotherapy) that include: identifying a patient having a cancer cell that has a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of the same; and administering to the identified patient (i) a therapeutically effective dose of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy, or (ii) a therapeutically effective dose of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, and a therapeutically effective dose of the previously administered MKI or the previously administered target-specific inhibitor.

Provided herein are methods of treating a patient having a cancer (e.g., any of the cancers described herein) that include: administering to a patient a therapeutically effective amount of a MKI or a target-specific inhibitor (e.g., a BRAF inhibitor, a EGFR inhibitor, a MEK inhibitor, an ALK inhibitor, a ROS1 inhibitor, a MET inhibitor, an aromatase inhibitor, a RAF inhibitor, or a RAS inhibitor) (e.g., as a monotherapy) for a first period of time; after the period of time, identifying a patient having a cancer cell that has a dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or the expression or activity or level of the same; and administering to the identified patient (i) a therapeutically effective dose of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy, or (ii) a therapeutically effective dose of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, and a therapeutically effective dose of the previously administered MKI or the previously administered target-specific inhibitor.

Provided herein are methods of treating a patient having a cancer (e.g., any of the cancers described herein) that has dysregulation of a BRAF gene, a BRAF kinase, or the expression or activity or level of the same that include administering to the patient (i) a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and (ii) a therapeutically effective amount of a BRAF inhibitor (e.g., any of the BRAF inhibitors described herein or known in the art).

Provided herein are methods of treating a patient having a cancer (e.g., any of the cancers described herein) that include: identifying a patient having a cancer cell that has dysregulation of a BRAF gene, a BRAF kinase, or the expression or activity or level of the same; and administering to the identified patient (i) a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and (ii) a therapeutically effective amount of a BRAF inhibitor (e.g., any of the BRAF inhibitors described herein or known in the art).

Provided herein are methods of treating a patient having a cancer (e.g., any of the cancers described herein) that has dysregulation of an EGFR gene, an EGFR protein, or the expression or activity or level of the same that include administering to the patient (i) a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and (ii) a therapeutically effective amount of an EGFR inhibitor (e.g., any of the EGFR inhibitors described herein or known in the art).

Provided herein are methods of treating a patient having a cancer (e.g., any of the cancers described herein) that include: identifying a patient having a cancer cell that has dysregulation of an EGFR gene, an EGFR protein, or the expression or activity or level of the same; and administering to the identified patient (i) a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and (ii) a therapeutically effective amount of an EGFR inhibitor (e.g., any of the EGFR inhibitors described herein or known in the art).

Provided herein are methods of treating a patient having a cancer (e.g., any of the cancers described herein) that has dysregulation of a MEK gene, a MEK protein, or the expression or activity or level of the same that include administering to the patient (i) a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and (ii) a therapeutically effective amount of a MEK inhibitor (e.g., any of the MEK inhibitors described herein or known in the art).

Provided herein are methods of treating a patient having a cancer (e.g., any of the cancers described herein) that include: identifying a patient having a cancer cell that has dysregulation of a MEK gene, a MEK protein, or the expression or activity or level of the same; and administering to the identified patient (i) a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and (ii) a therapeutically effective amount of a MEK inhibitor (e.g., any of the MEK inhibitors described herein or known in the art).

Provided herein are methods of treating a patient having a cancer (e.g., any of the cancers described herein) that has dysregulation of an ALK gene, an ALK protein, or the expression or activity or level of the same that include administering to the patient (i) a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and (ii) a therapeutically effective amount of an ALK inhibitor (e.g., any of the ALK inhibitors described herein or known in the art).

Provided herein are methods of treating a patient having a cancer (e.g., any of the cancers described herein) that include: identifying a patient having a cancer cell that has dysregulation of an ALK gene, an ALK protein, or the expression or activity or level of the same; and administering to the identified patient (i) a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and (ii) a therapeutically effective amount an ALK inhibitor (e.g., any of the ALK inhibitors described herein or known in the art).

Provided herein are methods of treating a patient having a cancer (e.g., any of the cancers described herein) that has dysregulation of a ROS gene, a ROS protein, or the expression or activity or level of the same that include administering to the patient (i) a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and (ii) a therapeutically effective amount of a ROS inhibitor (e.g., any of the ROS inhibitors described herein or known in the art).

Provided herein are methods of treating a patient having a cancer (e.g., any of the cancers described herein) that include: identifying a patient having a cancer cell that has dysregulation of a ROS gene, a ROS protein, or the expression or activity or level of the same; and administering to the identified patient (i) a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and (ii) a therapeutically effective amount a ROS inhibitor (e.g., any of the ROS inhibitors described herein or known in the art).

Provided herein are methods of treating a patient having a cancer (e.g., any of the cancers described herein) that has dysregulation of a MET gene, a MET protein, or the expression or activity or level of the same that include administering to the patient (i) a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and (ii) a therapeutically effective amount of a MET inhibitor (e.g., any of the MET inhibitors described herein or known in the art).

Provided herein are methods of treating a patient having a cancer (e.g., any of the cancers described herein) that include: identifying a patient having a cancer cell that has dysregulation of a MET gene, a MET protein, or the expression or activity or level of the same; and administering to the identified patient (i) a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and (ii) a therapeutically effective amount a MET inhibitor (e.g., any of the MET inhibitors described herein or known in the art).

Provided herein are methods of treating a patient having a cancer (e.g., any of the cancers described herein) that has dysregulation of an aromatase gene, an aromatase protein, or the expression or activity or level of the same that include administering to the patient (i) a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and (ii) a therapeutically effective amount of an aromatase inhibitor (e.g., any of the aromatase inhibitors described herein or known in the art).

Provided herein are methods of treating a patient having a cancer (e.g., any of the cancers described herein) that include: identifying a patient having a cancer cell that has dysregulation of an aromatase gene, an aromatase protein, or the expression or activity or level of the same; and administering to the identified patient (i) a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and (ii) a therapeutically effective amount an aromatase inhibitor (e.g., any of the aromatase inhibitors described herein or known in the art).

Provided herein are methods of treating a patient having a cancer (e.g., any of the cancers described herein) that has dysregulation of a RAF gene, a RAF protein, or the expression or activity or level of the same that include administering to the patient (i) a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and (ii) a therapeutically effective amount of a RAF inhibitor (e.g., any of the RAF inhibitors described herein or known in the art).

Provided herein are methods of treating a patient having a cancer (e.g., any of the cancers described herein) that include: identifying a patient having a cancer cell that has dysregulation of a RAF gene, a RAF protein, or the expression or activity or level of the same; and administering to the identified patient (i) a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and (ii) a therapeutically effective amount a RAF inhibitor (e.g., any of the RAF inhibitors described herein or known in the art).

Provided herein are methods of treating a patient having a cancer (e.g., any of the cancers described herein) that has dysregulation of a RAS gene, a RAS protein, or the expression or activity or level of the same that include administering to the patient (i) a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and (ii) a therapeutically effective amount of a RAS inhibitor (e.g., any of the RAS inhibitors described herein or known in the art).

Provided herein are methods of treating a patient having a cancer (e.g., any of the cancers described herein) that include: identifying a patient having a cancer cell that has dysregulation of a RAS gene, a RAS protein, or the expression or activity or level of the same; and administering to the identified patient (i) a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and (ii) a therapeutically effective amount a RAS inhibitor (e.g., any of the RAS inhibitors described herein or known in the art).

The phrase “dysregulation of a BRAF gene, a BRAF protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same” refers to a genetic mutation (e.g., a chromosomal translocation that results in the expression of a fusion protein including a BRAF kinase domain and a fusion partner, a mutation in a BRAF gene that results in the expression of a BRAF protein that includes a deletion of at least one amino acid as compared to a wildtype BRAF protein, a mutation in a BRAF gene that results in the expression of a BRAF protein with one or more point mutations as compared to a wildtype BRAF protein, a mutation in a BRAF gene that results in the expression of a BRAF protein with at least one inserted amino acid as compared to a wildtype BRAF protein, a gene duplication that results in an increased level of BRAF protein in a cell, or a mutation in a regulatory sequence (e.g., a promoter and/or enhancer) that results in an increased level of BRAF protein in a cell), an alternative spliced version of a BRAF mRNA that results in a BRAF protein having a deletion of at least one amino acid in the BRAF protein as compared to the wild-type BRAF protein), or increased expression (e.g., increased levels) of a wildtype BRAF protein in a mammalian cell due to aberrant cell signaling and/or dysregulated autocrine/paracrine signaling (e.g., as compared to a control non-cancerous cell). As another example, a dysregulation of a BRAF gene, a BRAF protein, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same, can be a mutation in a BRAF gene that encodes a BRAF protein that is constitutively active or has increased activity as compared to a protein encoded by a BRAF gene that does not include the mutation. For example, a dysregulation of a BRAF gene, a BRAF protein, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same, can be the result of a gene or chromosome translocation which results in the expression of a fusion protein that contains a first portion of a BRAF protein that includes a functional kinase domain, and a second portion of a partner protein (i.e., that is not BRAF). In some examples, dysregulation of a BRAF gene, a BRAF protein, or expression or activity or level of any of the same can be a result of a gene translocation of one BRAF gene with another non-BRAF gene.

Non-limiting examples of a BRAF inhibitor include dabrafenib, vemurafenib (also called RG7204 or PLX4032), sorafenib tosylate, PLX-4720, GDC-0879, BMS-908662 (Bristol-Meyers Squibb), LGX818 (Novartis), PLX3603 (Hofmann-LaRoche), RAF265 (Novartis), RO5185426 (Hofmann-LaRoche), and GSK2118436 (GlaxoSmithKline). Additional examples of a BRAF inhibitor are known in the art.

The phrase “dysregulation of an EGFR gene, an EGFR protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same” refers to a genetic mutation (e.g., a chromosomal translocation that results in the expression of a fusion protein including an EGFR kinase domain and a fusion partner, a mutation in an EGFR gene that results in the expression of an EGFR protein that includes a deletion of at least one amino acid as compared to a wildtype EGFR protein, a mutation in an EGFR gene that results in the expression of an EGFR protein with one or more point mutations as compared to a wildtype EGFR protein, a mutation in an EGFR gene that results in the expression of an EGFR protein with at least one inserted amino acid as compared to a wildtype EGFR protein, a gene duplication that results in an increased level of EGFR protein in a cell, or a mutation in a regulatory sequence (e.g., a promoter and/or enhancer) that results in an increased level of EGFR protein in a cell), an alternative spliced version of a EGFR mRNA that results in an EGFR protein having a deletion of at least one amino acid in the EGFR protein as compared to the wild-type EGFR protein), or increased expression (e.g., increased levels) of a wildtype EGFR protein in a mammalian cell due to aberrant cell signaling and/or dysregulated autocrine/paracrine signaling (e.g., as compared to a control non-cancerous cell). As another example, a dysregulation of an EGFR gene, an EGFR protein, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same, can be a mutation in an EGFR gene that encodes an EGFR protein that is constitutively active or has increased activity as compared to a protein encoded by an EGFR gene that does not include the mutation. For example, a dysregulation of an EGFR gene, an EGFR protein, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same, can be the result of a gene or chromosome translocation which results in the expression of a fusion protein that contains a first portion of a EGFR protein that includes a functional kinase domain, and a second portion of a partner protein (i.e., that is not EGFR). In some examples, dysregulation of an EGFR gene, an EGFR protein, or expression or activity or level of any of the same can be a result of a gene translocation of one EGFR gene with another non-EGFR gene. In some embodiments, the EGFR mutation is a T790M mutation. In some embodiments, the EGFR mutation is a C797S mutation.

Non-limiting examples of an EGFR inhibitor include gefitinib, erlotinib, brigatinib, lapatinib, neratinib, icotinib, afatinib, dacomitinib, poziotinib, vandetanib, afatinib, AZD9291, CO-1686, HM61713, AP26113, CI-1033, PKI-166, GW-2016, EKB-569, PDI-168393, AG-1478, CGP-59326A. Additional examples of an EGFR inhibitor are known in the art.

The phrase “dysregulation of a MEK gene, a MEK protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same” refers to a genetic mutation (e.g., a chromosomal translocation that results in the expression of a fusion protein including a MEK kinase domain and a fusion partner, a mutation in a MEK gene that results in the expression of a MEK protein that includes a deletion of at least one amino acid as compared to a wildtype MEK protein, a mutation in a MEK gene that results in the expression of a MEK protein with one or more point mutations as compared to a wildtype MEK protein, a mutation in a MEK gene that results in the expression of a MEK protein with at least one inserted amino acid as compared to a wildtype MEK protein, a gene duplication that results in an increased level of MEK protein in a cell, or a mutation in a regulatory sequence (e.g., a promoter and/or enhancer) that results in an increased level of MEK protein in a cell), an alternative spliced version of a MEK mRNA that results in a MEK protein having a deletion of at least one amino acid in the MEK protein as compared to the wild-type MEK protein), or increased expression (e.g., increased levels) of a wildtype MEK protein in a mammalian cell due to aberrant cell signaling and/or dysregulated autocrine/paracrine signaling (e.g., as compared to a control non-cancerous cell). As another example, a dysregulation of a MEK gene, a MEK protein, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same, can be a mutation in a MEK gene that encodes a MEK protein that is constitutively active or has increased activity as compared to a protein encoded by a MEK gene that does not include the mutation. For example, a dysregulation of a MEK gene, a MEK protein, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same, can be the result of a gene or chromosome translocation which results in the expression of a fusion protein that contains a first portion of a MEK protein that includes a functional kinase domain, and a second portion of a partner protein (i.e., that is not MEK). In some examples, dysregulation of a MEK gene, a MEK protein, or expression or activity or level of any of the same can be a result of a gene translocation of one MEK gene with another non-MEK gene.

Non-limiting examples of a MEK inhibitor include mekinist, trametinib (GSK1120212), cobimetinib (XL518), binimetinib (MEK162), selumetinib, PD-325901, CI-1040, PD035901, TAK-733, PD098059, U0126, AS703026/MSC1935369, XL-518/GDC-0973, BAY869766/RDEA119, and GSK1120212. Additional examples of a MEK inhibitor are known in the art.

The phrase “dysregulation of an ALK gene, an ALK protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same” refers to a genetic mutation (e.g., a chromosomal translocation that results in the expression of a fusion protein including an ALK kinase domain and a fusion partner, a mutation in an ALK gene that results in the expression an ALK protein that includes a deletion of at least one amino acid as compared to a wildtype ALK protein, a mutation in an ALK gene that results in the expression of an ALK protein with one or more point mutations as compared to a wildtype ALK protein, a mutation in an ALK gene that results in the expression of an ALK protein with at least one inserted amino acid as compared to a wildtype ALK protein, a gene duplication that results in an increased level of ALK protein in a cell, or a mutation in a regulatory sequence (e.g., a promoter and/or enhancer) that results in an increased level of ALK protein in a cell), an alternative spliced version of an ALK mRNA that results in an ALK protein having a deletion of at least one amino acid in the ALK protein as compared to the wild-type ALK protein), or increased expression (e.g., increased levels) of a wildtype ALK protein in a mammalian cell due to aberrant cell signaling and/or dysregulated autocrine/paracrine signaling (e.g., as compared to a control non-cancerous cell). As another example, a dysregulation of an ALK gene, an ALK protein, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same, can be a mutation in an ALK gene that encodes an ALK protein that is constitutively active or has increased activity as compared to a protein encoded by an ALK gene that does not include the mutation. For example, a dysregulation of an ALK gene, an ALK protein, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same, can be the result of a gene or chromosome translocation which results in the expression of a fusion protein that contains a first portion of an ALK protein that includes a functional kinase domain, and a second portion of a partner protein (i.e., that is not ALK). In some examples, dysregulation of an ALK gene, an ALK protein, or expression or activity or level of any of the same can be a result of a gene translocation of one ALK gene with another non-ALK gene.

Non-limiting examples of an ALK inhibitor include crizotinib (Xalkori), ceritinib (Zykadia), alectinib (Alecensa), dalantercept, ACE-041 (Brigatinib) (AP26113), entrectinib (NMS-E628), PF-06463922 (Pfizer), TSR-O11 (Tesaro), CEP-37440 (Teva), CEP-37440 (Teva), X-396 (Xcovery), and ASP-3026 (Astellas). Additional examples of an ALK inhibitor are known in the art.

The phrase “dysregulation of a ROS1 gene, a ROS1 protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same” refers to a genetic mutation (e.g., a chromosomal translocation that results in the expression of a fusion protein including a ROS1 kinase domain and a fusion partner, a mutation in a ROS1 gene that results in the expression a ROS1 protein that includes a deletion of at least one amino acid as compared to a wildtype ROS1 protein, a mutation in a ROS1 gene that results in the expression of a ROS1 protein with one or more point mutations as compared to a wildtype ROS1 protein, a mutation in a ROS1 gene that results in the expression of a ROS1 protein with at least one inserted amino acid as compared to a wildtype ROS1 protein, a gene duplication that results in an increased level of ROS1 protein in a cell, or a mutation in a regulatory sequence (e.g., a promoter and/or enhancer) that results in an increased level of ROS1 protein in a cell), an alternative spliced version of a ROS1 mRNA that results in a ROS1 protein having a deletion of at least one amino acid in the ROS1 protein as compared to the wild-type ROS1 protein), or increased expression (e.g., increased levels) of a wildtype ROS1 protein in a mammalian cell due to aberrant cell signaling and/or dysregulated autocrine/paracrine signaling (e.g., as compared to a control non-cancerous cell). As another example, a dysregulation of a ROS1 gene, a ROS1 protein, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same, can be a mutation in a ROS1 gene that encodes a ROS1 protein that is constitutively active or has increased activity as compared to a protein encoded by a ROS1 gene that does not include the mutation. For example, a dysregulation of a ROS1 gene, a ROS1 protein, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same, can be the result of a gene or chromosome translocation which results in the expression of a fusion protein that contains a first portion of a ROS1 protein that includes a functional kinase domain, and a second portion of a partner protein (i.e., that is not ROS1). In some examples, dysregulation of a ROS1 gene, a ROS1 protein, or expression or activity or level of any of the same can be a result of a gene translocation of one ROS1 gene with another non-ROS1 gene.

Non-limiting examples of a ROS1 inhibitor include crizotinib, entrectinib (RXDX-101), lorlatinib (PF-06463922), certinib, TPX-0005, DS-605, and cabozantinib. Additional examples of a ROS1 inhibitor are known in the art.

The phrase “dysregulation of a MET gene, a MET protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same” refers to a genetic mutation (e.g., a chromosomal translocation that results in the expression of a fusion protein including a MET kinase domain and a fusion partner, a mutation in a MET gene that results in the expression a MET protein that includes a deletion of at least one amino acid as compared to a wildtype MET protein, a mutation in a MET gene that results in the expression of a MET protein with one or more point mutations as compared to a wildtype MET protein, a mutation in a MET gene that results in the expression of a MET protein with at least one inserted amino acid as compared to a wildtype MET protein, a gene duplication that results in an increased level of MET protein in a cell, or a mutation in a regulatory sequence (e.g., a promoter and/or enhancer) that results in an increased level of MET protein in a cell), an alternative spliced version of a MET mRNA that results in a MET protein having a deletion of at least one amino acid in the MET protein as compared to the wild-type MET protein), or increased expression (e.g., increased levels) of a wildtype MET protein in a mammalian cell due to aberrant cell signaling and/or dysregulated autocrine/paracrine signaling (e.g., as compared to a control non-cancerous cell). As another example, a dysregulation of a MET gene, a MET protein, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same, can be a mutation in a MET gene that encodes a MET protein that is constitutively active or has increased activity as compared to a protein encoded by a MET gene that does not include the mutation. For example, a dysregulation of a MET gene, a MET protein, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same, can be the result of a gene or chromosome translocation which results in the expression of a fusion protein that contains a first portion of a MET protein that includes a functional kinase domain, and a second portion of a partner protein (i.e., that is not MET). In some examples, dysregulation of a MET gene, a MET protein, or expression or activity or level of any of the same can be a result of a gene translocation of one MET gene with another non-MET gene.

Non-limiting examples of a MET inhibitor include crizotinib, cabozantinib, JNJ-38877605, PF-04217903 (Pfizer), MK-2461, GSK 1363089, AMG 458 (Amgen), tivantinib, INCB28060 (Incyte), PF-02341066 (Pfizer), E7050 (Eisai), BMS-777607 (Bristol-Meyers Squibb), JNJ-38877605 (Johnson & Johnson), ARQ197 (ArQule), GSK/1363089/XL880 (GSK/Exeilixis), and XL174 (BMS/Exelixis). Additional examples of a MET inhibitor are known in the art.

The phrase “dysregulation of a aromatase gene, an aromatase protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same” refers to a genetic mutation (e.g., a mutation in an aromatase gene that results in the expression an aromatase protein that includes a deletion of at least one amino acid as compared to a wildtype aromatase protein, a mutation in an aromatase gene that results in the expression of an aromatase protein with one or more point mutations as compared to a wildtype aromatase protein, a mutation in an aromatase gene that results in the expression of an aromatase protein with at least one inserted amino acid as compared to a wildtype aromatase protein, a gene duplication that results in an increased level of aromatase protein in a cell, or a mutation in a regulatory sequence (e.g., a promoter and/or enhancer) that results in an increased level of aromatase protein in a cell), an alternative spliced version of an aromatase mRNA that results in an aromatase protein having a deletion of at least one amino acid in the aromatase protein as compared to the wild-type aromatase protein), or increased expression (e.g., increased levels) of a wildtype aromatase in a mammalian cell due to aberrant cell signaling and/or dysregulated autocrine/paracrine signaling (e.g., as compared to a control non-cancerous cell). As another example, a dysregulation of an aromatase gene, an aromatase protein, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same, can be a mutation in an aromatase gene that encodes an aromatase protein that is constitutively active or has increased activity as compared to a protein encoded by an aromatase gene that does not include the mutation.

Non-limiting examples of an aromatase inhibitor include Arimidex (anastrozole), Aromasin (exemestane), Femara (letrozole), Teslac (testolactone), and formestane. Additional examples of an aromatase inhibitor are known in the art.

The phrase “dysregulation of a RAF gene, a RAF protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same” refers to a genetic mutation (e.g., a chromosomal translocation that results in the expression of a fusion protein including a RAF kinase domain and a fusion partner, a mutation in a RAF gene that results in the expression a RAF protein that includes a deletion of at least one amino acid as compared to a wildtype RAF protein, a mutation in a RAF gene that results in the expression of a RAF protein with one or more point mutations as compared to a wildtype RAF protein, a mutation in a RAF gene that results in the expression of a RAF protein with at least one inserted amino acid as compared to a wildtype RAF protein, a gene duplication that results in an increased level of RAF protein in a cell, or a mutation in a regulatory sequence (e.g., a promoter and/or enhancer) that results in an increased level of RAF protein in a cell), an alternative spliced version of a RAF mRNA that results in a RAF protein having a deletion of at least one amino acid in the RAF protein as compared to the wild-type RAF protein), or increased expression (e.g., increased levels) of a wildtype RAF protein in a mammalian cell due to aberrant cell signaling and/or dysregulated autocrine/paracrine signaling (e.g., as compared to a control non-cancerous cell). As another example, a dysregulation of a RAF gene, a RAF protein, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same, can be a mutation in a RAF gene that encodes a RAF protein that is constitutively active or has increased activity as compared to a protein encoded by a RAF gene that does not include the mutation. For example, a dysregulation of a RAF gene, a RAF protein, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same, can be the result of a gene or chromosome translocation which results in the expression of a fusion protein that contains a first portion of a RAF protein that includes a functional kinase domain, and a second portion of a partner protein (i.e., that is not RAF). In some examples, dysregulation of a RAF gene, a RAF protein, or expression or activity or level of any of the same can be a result of a gene translocation of one RAF gene with another non-RAF gene.

Non-limiting examples of a RAF inhibitor include sorafenib, vemurafenib, dabrafenib, BMS-908662/XL281, GSK2118436, RAF265, RO5126766, and R⁰⁴⁹⁸⁷⁶⁵⁵. Additional examples of a RAF inhibitor are known in the art.

The phrase “dysregulation of a RAS gene, a RAS protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same” refers to a genetic mutation (e.g., a chromosomal translocation that results in the expression of a fusion protein including a RAS kinase domain and a fusion partner, a mutation in a RAS gene that results in the expression a RAS protein that includes a deletion of at least one amino acid as compared to a wildtype RAS protein, a mutation in a RAS gene that results in the expression of a RAS protein with one or more point mutations as compared to a wildtype RAS protein, a mutation in a RAS gene that results in the expression of a RAS protein with at least one inserted amino acid as compared to a wildtype RAS protein, a gene duplication that results in an increased level of RAS protein in a cell, or a mutation in a regulatory sequence (e.g., a promoter and/or enhancer) that results in an increased level of RAS protein in a cell), an alternative spliced version of a RAS mRNA that results in a RAS protein having a deletion of at least one amino acid in the RAS protein as compared to the wild-type RAS protein), or increased expression (e.g., increased levels) of a wildtype RAS protein in a mammalian cell due to aberrant cell signaling and/or dysregulated autocrine/paracrine signaling (e.g., as compared to a control non-cancerous cell). As another example, a dysregulation of a RAS gene, a RAS protein, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same, can be a mutation in a RAS gene that encodes a RAS protein that is constitutively active or has increased activity as compared to a protein encoded by a RAS gene that does not include the mutation. For example, a dysregulation of a RAS gene, a RAS protein, or expression or activity, or level of any of the same, can be the result of a gene or chromosome translocation which results in the expression of a fusion protein that contains a first portion of a RAS protein that includes a functional kinase domain, and a second portion of a partner protein (i.e., that is not RAS). In some examples, dysregulation of a RAS gene, a RAS protein, or expression or activity or level of any of the same can be a result of a gene translocation of one RAS gene with another non-RAS gene.

Non-limiting examples of a RAS inhibitor include Kobe0065 and Kobe2602. Additional examples of a RAS inhibitor are known in the art.

Non-limiting examples of multi-kinase inhibitors (MKIs) include dasatinib and sunitinib.

In some embodiments, provided herein are methods of treating treating a subject having a cancer that include: (a) administering one or more doses of a first RET inhibitor or a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof to the subject for a period of time; (b) after (a), determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one dysregulation of a gene, a protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same, wherein the gene or protein is selected from the group consisting of EGFR, MET, ALK, ROS1, KRAS, BRAF, RAS, PIK3CA, and HER2; and (c) 1) administering a second RET inhibitor as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent, 2) administering additional doses of the first RET inhibitor or a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof in combination with an inhibitior targeting the gene or protein (e.g., an inhibitor of EGFR, MET, ALK, ROS1, KRAS, BRAF, RAS, PIK3CA, and HER2), or 3) stopping administration of the RET inhibitor of step a) and administering an inhibitior targeting the gene or protein (e.g., an inhibitor of EGFR, MET, ALK, ROS1, KRAS, BRAF, RAS, PIK3CA, and HER2) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one dysregulation of a gene, a protein, or the expression or activity or level of the same, wherein the gene or protein is selected from the group consisting of EGFR, MET, ALK, ROS1, KRAS, BRAF, RAS, PIK3CA, and HER2; or (d) administering additional doses of the first RET inhibitor step (a) to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, the one or more dysregulations of a gene, a protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same, wherein the gene or protein is selected from the group consisting of EGFR, MET, ALK, ROS1, KRAS, BRAF, RAS, PIK3CA, and HER2 confer increased resistance to a cancer cell or tumor to treatment with the first RET inhibitor or the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the tumor is a NSCLC tumor and the one or more dysregulations of a gene, a protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same are selected from targetable mutations in EGFR or MET, targetable rearrangements involving ALK or ROS1, or activating mutations in KRAS. In some embodiments, the tumor is a thyroid (non-MTC) tumor and the one or more dysregulations of a gene, a protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same are selected from targetable mutations in BRAF or activating mutations in RAS. In some embodiments, the tumor is a MTC tumor and the one or more dysregulations of a gene, a protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same are selected from targetable mutations in ALK or activating mutations in RAS. In some embodiments, the tumor is a pancreatic tumor and the one or more dysregulations of a gene, a protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same is an activating mutations in KRAS. In some embodiments, the tumor is a colorectal tumor and the one or more dysregulations of a gene, a protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same are selected from targetable mutations in BRAF or PIK3CA or an activating mutation in RAS. In some embodiments, the tumor is a breast tumor and the one or more dysregulations of a gene, a protein, or the expression or activity or level of any of the same are selected from targetable mutations in PIK3CA or alteration in HER2.

Also provided are methods of selecting a treatment for a subject having a cancer that include (a) administering one or more doses of a first RET inhibitor to the subject for a period of time; (b) after (a), determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; and (c) selecting a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent for the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations; or (d) selecting additional doses of the first RET inhibitor of step (a) for the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, when additional doses of the first RET inhibitor of step (a) are selected for the subject, the method can further include selecting doses of another anticancer agent for the subject. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations confer increased resistance to a cancer cell or tumor to treatment with the first RET inhibitor. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations include one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations listed in Tables 3 and 4. For example, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations can include a substitution at amino acid position 804, e.g., V804M, V804L, or V804E, or a substitution at amino acid position 810, e.g., G810S, G810R, G810C, G810A, G810V, and G810D. In some embodiments, the additional anticancer agent is any anticancer agent known in the art. For example, the additional anticancer agent can be another RET inhibitor (e.g., a second RET inhibitor). In some embodiments, the additional anticancer agent can be an immunotherapy. In some embodiments of step (c), another RET inhibitor can be the first RET inhibitor administered in step (a).

Also provided are methods of selecting a treatment for a subject having a cancer that include (a) administering one or more doses of a first RET inhibitor to the subject for a period of time; (b) after (a), determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; and (c) selecting a second RET inhibitor as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent if the subject has a cancer cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations; or (d) selecting additional doses of the first RET inhibitor of step (a) for the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, when additional doses of the first RET inhibitor of step (a) are selected for the subject, the method can further include selecting doses of another anticancer agent for the subject. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations confer increased resistance to a cancer cell or tumor to treatment with the first RET inhibitor. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations include one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations listed in Tables 3 and 4. For example, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations can include a substitution at amino acid position 804, e.g., V804M, V804L, or V804E, or a substitution at amino acid position 810, e.g., G810S, G810R, G810C, G810A, G810V, and G810D. In some embodiments, the additional anticancer agent is any anticancer agent known in the art. For example, the additional anticancer agent is another RET inhibitor (e.g., a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof). In some embodiments, the additional anticancer agent is an immunotherapy. In some embodiments, another RET inhibitor can be the first RET inhibitor administered in step (a).

Also provided are methods of selecting a treatment for a subject having a cancer that include (a) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from a subject having a cancer and previously administered one or more doses of a first RET inhibitor has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations; (b) selecting a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent for the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (c) selecting additional doses of the first RET inhibitor previously administered to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, when additional doses of the first RET inhibitor previously administered to the subject are selected for the subject, the method can further include selecting doses of another anticancer agent (e.g., a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof or immunotherapy) for the subject. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations confer increased resistance to a cancer cell or tumor to treatment with the first RET inhibitor. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations include one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations listed in Tables 3 and 4. For example, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations can include a substitution at amino acid position 804, e.g., V804M, V804L, or V804E, or a substitution at amino acid position 810, e.g., G810S, G810R, G810C, G810A, G810V, and G810D. In some embodiments, the additional anticancer agent is any anticancer agent known in the art. For example, the additional anticancer agent can be another RET inhibitor (e.g., a second RET inhibitor). In some embodiments, the additional anticancer agent can be an immunotherapy. In some embodiments of step (c), another RET inhibitor can be the first RET inhibitor administered in step (a).

Also provided are methods of selecting a treatment for a subject having a cancer that include (a) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from a subject having a cancer and previously administered one or more doses of a first RET inhibitor has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations; (b) selecting a second RET inhibitor as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent for the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has at least one RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (c) selecting additional doses of the first RET inhibitor previously administered to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, when additional doses of the first RET inhibitor previously administered to the subject are selected for the subject, the method can further include selecting doses of another anticancer agent (e.g., a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or an immunotherapy) for the subject. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations confer increased resistance to a cancer cell or tumor to treatment with the first RET inhibitor. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations include one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations listed in Tables 3 and 4. For example, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations can include a substitution at amino acid position 804, e.g., V804M, V804L, or V804E, or a substitution at amino acid position 810, e.g., G810S, G810R, G810C, G810A, G810V, and G810D. In some embodiments, the additional anticancer agent is any anticancer agent known in the art. For example, the additional anticancer agent can be another RET inhibitor (e.g., a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof). In some embodiments, the additional anticancer agent can be an immunotherapy. In some embodiments, another RET inhibitor can be the first RET inhibitor administered in step (a).

Also provided are methods of determining a subject's risk for developing a cancer that has some resistance to a first RET inhibitor that include: determining whether a cell in a sample obtained from the subject has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations; and identifying a subject having a cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations, as having an increased likelihood of developing a cancer that has some resistance to the first RET inhibitor. Also provided are methods of determining a subject's risk for developing a cancer that has some resistance to a first RET inhibitor that include: identifying a subject having a cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations, as having an increased likelihood of developing a cancer that has some resistance to the first RET inhibitor. Also provided are methods of determining the presence of a cancer that has some resistance to a first RET inhibitor that include: determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations; and determining that the subject having a cancer cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations has a cancer that has some resistance to the first RET inhibitor. Also provided are methods of determining the presence of a cancer that has some resistance to a first RET inhibitor in a subject that include: determining that a subject having a cancer cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations, has a cancer that has some resistance to the first RET inhibitor. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations confer increased resistance to a cancer cell or tumor to treatment with the first RET inhibitor. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations include one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations listed in Tables 3 and 4. For example, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations can include a substitution at amino acid position 804, e.g., V804M, V804L, or V804E, or a substitution at amino acid position 810, e.g., G810S, G810R, G810C, G810A, G810V, and G810D.

In some embodiments of any of the methods described herein, a RET inhibitor resistance mutation that confers increased resistance to a cancer cell or tumor to treatment with a first RET inhibitor can be any of the RET inhibitor resistance mutations listed in Table 3 or 4 (e.g., a substitution at amino acid position 804, e.g., V804M, V804L, or V804E, or a substitution at amino acid position 810, e.g., G810S, G810R, G810C, G810A, G810V, and G810D).

In some embodiments, the presence of one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations in a tumor causes the tumor to be more resistant to treatment with a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. Methods useful when a RET inhibitor resistance mutation causes the tumor to be more resistant to treatment with a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof are described below. For example, provided herein are methods of treating a subject having a cancer that include: identifying a subject having a cancer cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations; and administering to the identified subject a treatment that does not include a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy (e.g., a second RET kinase inhibitor). Also provided are methods of treating a subject identified as having a cancer cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations that include administering to the subject a treatment that does not include a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy (e.g., a second RET kinase inhibitor). In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations confer increased resistance to a cancer cell or tumor to treatment with a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof.

Also provided are methods of selecting a treatment for a subject having a cancer that include: identifying a subject having a cancer cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations; and selecting a treatment that does not include a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy for the identified subject (e.g., a second RET kinase inhibitor). Also provided are methods of selecting a treatment for a subject having a cancer that include: selecting a treatment that does not include a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy (e.g., a second RET kinase inhibitor) for a subject identified as having a cancer cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations. Also provided are methods of selecting a subject having a cancer for a treatment that does not include a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy (e.g., a second RET kinase inhibitor) that include: identifying a subject having a cancer cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations; and selecting the identified subject for a treatment that does not include a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy (e.g., a second RET kinase inhibitor). Also provided are methods of selecting a subject having a cancer for a treatment that does not include a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy (e.g., a second RET kinase inhibitor) that include: selecting a subject identified as having a cancer cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations for a treatment that does not include a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations confer increased resistance to a cancer cell or tumor to treatment with a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof.

Also provided are methods of determining the likelihood that a subject having a cancer will have a positive response to treatment with a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy that include: determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations; and determining that the subject having the cancer cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations has a decreased likelihood of having a positive response to treatment with a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy. Also provided are methods of determining the likelihood that a subject having cancer will have a positive response to treatment with a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy that include: determining that a subject having a cancer cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations has a decreased likelihood of having a positive response to treatment with a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy. Also provided are methods of predicting the efficacy of treatment with a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy in a subject having cancer that include: determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations; and determining that treatment with a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy is less likely to be effective in a subject having a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations. Also provided are methods of predicting the efficacy of treatment with a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy in a subject having cancer that include: determining that treatment with a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy is less likely to be effective in a subject having a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations confer increased resistance to a cancer cell or tumor to treatment with a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof.

Also provided are methods of treating a subject having a cancer that include: (a) administering one or more doses of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof for a period of time; (b) after (a), determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations; and (c) administering a second RET inhibitor or a second compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to a subject having a cancer cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations; or (d) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (a) to a subject having a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, where the subject is administered additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (a), the subject can also be administered another anticancer agent or a second compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations confer increased resistance to a cancer cell or tumor to treatment with a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the additional anticancer agent is any anticancer agent known in the art. For example, the additional anticancer agent can be another RET inhibitor (e.g., a second RET inhibitor). In some embodiments, the additional anticancer agent can be an immunotherapy. In some embodiments, another RET inhibitor can be the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof administered in step (a).

Also provided are methods of treating a subject having a cancer that include: (a) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from a subject having a cancer and previously administered one or more doses of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations; (b) administering a second RET inhibitor as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to a subject having a cancer cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations; or (c) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof previously administered to a subject having a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, where the subject is administered additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (a), the subject can also be administered another anticancer agent. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations confer increased resistance to a cancer cell or tumor to treatment with a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the additional anticancer agent is any anticancer agent known in the art. For example, the additional anticancer agent can be another RET inhibitor (e.g., a second RET inhibitor). In some embodiments, the additional anticancer agent can be an immunotherapy. In some embodiments, another RET inhibitor can be the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof administered in step (a).

Also provided are methods of treating a subject having a cancer that include: (a) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from a subject having a cancer and previously administered one or more doses of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations; (b) administering a second RET inhibitor or a second compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent to a subject having a cancer cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations; or (c) administering additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof previously administered to a subject having a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, where the subject is administered additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (a), the subject can also be administered another anticancer agent. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations confer increased resistance to a cancer cell or tumor to treatment with a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the additional anticancer agent is any anticancer agent known in the art. For example, the additional anticancer agent can be another RET inhibitor (e.g., a second RET inhibitor). In some embodiments, the additional anticancer agent can be an immunotherapy. In some embodiments, another RET inhibitor can be the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof administered in step (a).

Also provided are methods of selecting a treatment for a subject having a cancer that include: (a) administering one or more doses of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof to the subject for a period of time; (b) after (a), determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations; and (c) selecting a second RET inhibitor or a second compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent for the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has a RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (d) selecting additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (a) for the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, where additional doses of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (a) are selected for the subject, the method can also include further selecting another anticancer agent. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations confer increased resistance to a cancer cell or tumor to treatment with a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the additional anticancer agent is any anticancer agent known in the art. For example, the additional anticancer agent can be another RET inhibitor (e.g., a second RET inhibitor). In some embodiments, the additional anticancer agent can be an immunotherapy. In some embodiments, another RET inhibitor can be the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof administered in step (a).

Also provided are methods of selecting a treatment for a subject having a cancer that include: (a) determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from a subject having a cancer and previously administered one or more doses of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations; (b) selecting a second RET inhibitor or a second compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as a monotherapy or in conjunction with another anticancer agent for the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that has a RET inhibitor resistance mutation; or (c) selecting additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof previously administered to the subject if the subject has a cancer cell that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation. In some embodiments, where additional doses of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof of step (a) are selected for the subject, the method can also include further selecting another anticancer agent. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations confer increased resistance to a cancer cell or tumor to treatment with a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the additional anticancer agent is any anticancer agent known in the art. For example, the additional anticancer agent can be another RET inhibitor (e.g., a second RET inhibitor). In some embodiments, the additional anticancer agent can be an immunotherapy. In some embodiments, another RET inhibitor can be the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof administered in step (a).

Also provided are methods of determining a subject's risk for developing a cancer that has some resistance to a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof that include: determining whether a cell in a sample obtained from the subject has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations; and identifying the subject if the subject has a cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations as having an increased likelihood of developing a cancer that has some resistance to a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. Also provided are methods of determining a subject's risk for developing a cancer that has some resistance to a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof that include: identifying a subject having a cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations as having an increased likelihood of developing a cancer that has some resistance to a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. Also provided are methods of determining the presence of a cancer that has some resistance to a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof that includes: determining whether a cancer cell in a sample obtained from the subject has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations; and determining that the subject having the cancer cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations has a cancer that has some resistance to a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. Also provided are methods of determining the presence of a cancer that has some resistance to a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof in a subject that include: determining that a subject having a cancer cell that has one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations has a cancer that has some resistance to a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations confer increased resistance to a cancer cell or tumor to treatment with a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof.

In some embodiments of any of the methods described herein, a RET inhibitor resistance mutation that confers increased resistance to a cancer cell or tumor to treatment with a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, can be any of the RET inhibitor resistance mutations listed in Table 3 or 4.

Methods of determining the level of resistance of a cancer cell or a tumor to a RET inhibitor (e.g., any of the RET inhibitors described herein or known in the art) can be determined using methods known in the art. For example, the level of resistance of a cancer cell to a RET inhibitor can be assessed by determining the IC₅₀ of a RET inhibitor (e.g., any of the RET inhibitors described herein or known in the art) on the viability of a cancer cell. In other examples, the level of resistance of a cancer cell to a RET inhibitor can be assessed by determining the growth rate of the cancer cell in the presence of a RET inhibitor (e.g., any of the RET inhibitors described herein). In other examples, the level of resistance of a tumor to a RET inhibitor can be assessed by determining the mass or size of one or more tumors in a subject over time during treatment with a RET inhibitor (e.g., any of the RET inhibitors described herein). In other examples, the level of resistance of a cancer cell or a tumor to a RET inhibitor can be indirectly assessed by determining the activity of a RET kinase including one or more of the RET inhibitor resistance mutations (i.e., the same RET kinase expressed in a cancer cell or a tumor in a subject). The level of resistance of a cancer cell or tumor having one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations to a RET inhibitor is relative to the level of resistance in a cancer cell or tumor that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation (e.g., a cancer cell or tumor that does not have the same RET inhibitor resistance mutations, a cancer cell or a tumor that does not have any RET inhibitor resistance mutations, or a cancer cell or a tumor that expresses a wildtype RET protein). For example, the determined level of resistance of a cancer cell or a tumor having one or more RET inhibitor resistance mutations can be greater than about 1%, greater than about 2%, greater than about 3%, greater than about 4%, greater than about 5%, greater than about 6%, greater than about 7%, greater than about 8%, greater than about 9%, greater than about 10%, greater than about 11%, greater than about 12%, greater than about 13%, greater than about 14%, greater than about 15%, greater than about 20%, greater than about 25%, greater than about 30%, greater than about 35%, greater than about 40%, greater than about 45%, greater than about 50%, greater than about 60%, greater than about 70%, greater than about 80%, greater than about 90%, greater than about 100%, greater than about 110%, greater than about 120%, greater than about 130%, greater than about 140%, greater than about 150%, greater than about 160%, greater than about 170%, greater than about 180%, greater than about 190%, greater than about 200%, greater than about 210%, greater than about 220%, greater than about 230%, greater than about 240%, greater than about 250%, greater than about 260%, greater than about 270%, greater than about 280%, greater than about 290%, or greater than about 300% of the level of resistance in a cancer cell or tumor that does not have a RET inhibitor resistance mutation (e.g., a cancer cell or tumor that does not have the same RET inhibitor resistance mutations, a cancer cell or a tumor that does not have any RET inhibitor resistance mutations, or a cancer cell or a tumor that expresses a wildtype RET protein).

RET is thought to play an important role in the development and survival of afferent nociceptors in the skin and gut. RET kinase knock-out mice lack enteric neurons and have other nervous system anomalies suggesting that a functional RET kinase protein product is necessary during development (Taraviras, S. et al., Development, 1999, 126:2785-2797). Moreover population studies of patients with Hirschsprung's disease characterized by colonic obstruction due to lack of normal colonic enervation have a higher proportion of both familial and sporadic loss of function RET mutations (Butler Tjaden N., et al., Transl. Res., 2013, 162: 1-15). Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a common illness affecting 10-20% of individuals in developed countries and is characterized by abnormal bowel habits, bloating and visceral hypersensitivity (Camilleri, M., N. Engl. J. Med., 2012, 367: 1626-1635). While the etiology of IBS is unknown it is thought to result from either a disorder between the brain and gastrointestinal tract, a disturbance in the gut microbiome or increased inflammation. The resulting gastrointestinal changes affect normal bowel transit resulting in either diarrhea or constipation. Furthermore in many IBS patients the sensitization of the peripheral nervous system results in visceral hypersensitivity or allodynia (Keszthelyi, D., Eur. J. Pain, 2012, 16: 1444-1454). See, e.g., U.S. Publication No. 2015/0099762.

Accordingly, provided herein are methods for treating a patient diagnosed with (or identified as having) an irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) including diarrhea-predominant, constipation-predominant or alternating stool pattern, functional bloating, functional constipation, functional diarrhea, unspecified functional bowel disorder, functional abdominal pain syndrome, chronic idiopathic constipation, functional esophageal disorders, functional gastroduodenal disorders, functional anorectal pain, and inflammatory bowel disease that include administering to the patient a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof.

Also provided herein are methods for treating a patient identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) (e.g., a patient that has been identified or diagnosed as having a RET-associated irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) through the use of a regulatory agency-approved, e.g., FDA-approved, kit for identifying dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, in a patient or a biopsy sample from the patient) that include administering to the patient a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof.

Also provided herein are methods for treating pain associated with IBS that include administering to the patient a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof is administered in combination with another therapeutic agent useful for treating one or more symptoms of IBS.

Also provided are methods for treating an irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) in a patient in need thereof, the method comprising: (a) determining if the irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) in the patient is a RET-associated IBS (e.g., using a regulatory-agency approved, e.g., FDA-approved, kit for identifying dysregulation of a RET gene, a RET kinase, or expression or activity or level of any of the same, in a patient or a biopsy sample from the patient, or by performing any of the non-limiting examples of assays described herein); and (b) if the IBS is determined to be a RET-associated IBS, administering to the patient a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof.

In some embodiments, the compounds of the present invention are useful for treating irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) in combination with one or more additional therapeutic agents or therapies effective in treating the irritable bowel syndrome that work by the same or a different mechanism of action. The at least one additional therapeutic agent may be administered with a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as part of the same or separate dosage forms, via the same or different routes of administration, and on the same or different administration schedules according to standard pharmaceutical practice known to one skilled in the art.

Non-limiting examples of additional therapeutics for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) include probiotics, fiber supplements (e.g., psyllium, methylcellulose), anti-diarrheal medications (e.g., loperamide), bile acid binders (e.g., cholestyramine, colestipol, colesevelam), anticholinergic and antispasmodic medications (e.g., hyoscyamine, dicyclomine), antidepressant medications (e.g., tricyclic antidepressant such as imipramine or notriptyline or a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) such as fluoxetine or paroxetine), antibiotics (e.g., rifaximin), alosetron, and lubiprostone.

Accordingly, also provided herein are methods of treating irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), comprising administering to a patient in need thereof a pharmaceutical combination for treating IBS which comprises (a) a compound of Formula I or pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, (b) an additional therapeutic agent, and (c) optionally at least one pharmaceutically acceptable carrier for simultaneous, separate or sequential use for the treatment of IBS, wherein the amounts of the compound of Formula I or pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and the additional therapeutic agent are together effective in treating the IBS. In some embodiments, the compound of Formula I or pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, and the additional therapeutic agent are administered simultaneously as separate dosages. In some embodiments, the compound of Formula I or pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, and the additional therapeutic agent are administered as separate dosages sequentially in any order, in jointly therapeutically effective amounts, e.g. in daily or intermittently dosages. In some embodiments, compound of Formula I or pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, and the additional therapeutic agent are administered simultaneously as a combined dosage.

Also provided herein is (i) a pharmaceutical combination for treating irritable bowel syndrome in a patient in need thereof, which comprises (a) a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, (b) at least one additional therapeutic agent (e.g., any of the exemplary additional therapeutic agents described herein for treating irritable bowel syndrome or known in the art), and (c) optionally at least one pharmaceutically acceptable carrier for simultaneous, separate or sequential use for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome, wherein the amounts of the compound of Formula I or pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and of the additional therapeutic agent are together effective in treating the irritable bowel syndrome; (ii) a pharmaceutical composition comprising such a combination; (iii) the use of such a combination for the preparation of a medicament for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome; and (iv) a commercial package or product comprising such a combination as a combined preparation for simultaneous, separate or sequential use; and to a method of treatment of irritable bowel syndrome in a patient in need thereof. In some embodiments the patient is a human.

The term “pharmaceutical combination”, as used herein, refers to a pharmaceutical therapy resulting from the mixing or combining of more than one active ingredient and includes both fixed and non-fixed combinations of the active ingredients. The term “fixed combination” means that a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and at least one additional therapeutic agent (e.g., an agent effective in treating irritable bowel syndrome), are both administered to a patient simultaneously in the form of a single composition or dosage. The term “non-fixed combination” means that a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and at least one additional therapeutic agent (e.g., an agent effective in treating irritable bowel syndrome) are formulated as separate compositions or dosages, such that they may be administered to a patient in need thereof simultaneously, concurrently or sequentially with variable intervening time limits, wherein such administration provides effective levels of the two or more compounds in the body of the patient. In some embodiments, the compound of Formula I or pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof and the additional therapeutic agent are formulated as separate unit dosage forms, wherein the separate dosages forms are suitable for either sequential or simultaneous administration. These also apply to cocktail therapies, e.g. the administration of three or more active ingredients.

In some embodiments, a compound provided herein can be used as an agent for supportive care for a patient undergoing cancer treatment. For example, a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, can be useful to reduce one or more symptoms associated with treatment with one or more cancer therapies such as diarrheal or constipations complications and/or abdominal pain. See, for example, U.S. Publication No. 2015/0099762 and Hoffman, J. M. et al. Gastroenterology (2012) 142:844-854. Accordingly, a compound, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or composition provided herein can be administered to a patient to address one or more complications associated with cancer treatment (e.g., gastrointestinal complications such as diarrhea, constipation, or abdominal pain).

In some embodiments, a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, can be administered to a patient undergoing cancer treatment (e.g., a patient experiencing an adverse event associated with cancer treatment such as an immune-related adverse event or a gastrointestinal complication including diarrhea, constipation, and abdominal pain). For example, a compound provided herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, can be used in the treatment of colitis or IBS associated with administration of a checkpoint inhibitor; see, e.g., Postow, M. A. et al. Journal of Clinical Oncology (2015) 33: 1974-1982. In some such embodiments, a compound provided herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, can be formulated to exhibit low bioavailability and/or be targeted for delivery in the gastrointestinal tract. See, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,531,152.

Also provided is a method for inhibiting RET kinase activity in a cell, comprising contacting the cell with a compound of Formula I. In some embodiments, the contacting is in vitro. In some embodiments, the contacting is in vivo. In some embodiments, the contacting is in vivo, wherein the method comprises administering an effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof to a subject having a cell having RET kinase activity. In some embodiments, the cell is a cancer cell. In some embodiments, the cancer cell is any cancer as described herein. In some embodiments, the cancer cell is a RET-associated cancer cell. In some embodiments, the cell is a gastrointestinal cell.

Also provided is a method for inhibiting RET kinase activity in a mammalian cell, comprising contacting the cell with a compound of Formula I. In some embodiments, the contacting is in vitro. In some embodiments, the contacting is in vivo. In some embodiments, the contacting is in vivo, wherein the method comprises administering an effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof to a mammal having a cell having RET kinase activity. In some embodiments, the mammalian cell is a mammalian cancer cell. In some embodiments, the mammalian cancer cell is any cancer as described herein. In some embodiments, the mammalian cancer cell is a RET-associated cancer cell. In some embodiments, the mammalian cell is a gastrointestinal cell.

As used herein, the term “contacting” refers to the bringing together of indicated moieties in an in vitro system or an in vivo system. For example, “contacting” a RET kinase with a compound provided herein includes the administration of a compound provided herein to an individual or patient, such as a human, having a RET kinase, as well as, for example, introducing a compound provided herein into a sample containing a cellular or purified preparation containing the RET kinase.

Also provided herein is a method of inhibiting cell proliferation, in vitro or in vivo, the method comprising contacting a cell with an effective amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, or a pharmaceutical composition thereof as defined herein

The phrase “effective amount” means an amount of compound that, when administered to a patient in need of such treatment, is sufficient to (i) treat a RET kinase-associated disease or disorder, (ii) attenuate, ameliorate, or eliminate one or more symptoms of the particular disease, condition, or disorder, or (iii) delay the onset of one or more symptoms of the particular disease, condition, or disorder described herein. The amount of a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof that will correspond to such an amount will vary depending upon factors such as the particular compound, disease condition and its severity, the identity (e.g., weight) of the patient in need of treatment, but can nevertheless be routinely determined by one skilled in the art.

When employed as pharmaceuticals, the compounds of Formula I, including pharmaceutically acceptable salts or solvates thereof can be administered in the form of pharmaceutical compositions. These compositions can be prepared in a manner well known in the pharmaceutical art, and can be administered by a variety of routes, depending upon whether local or systemic treatment is desired and upon the area to be treated. Administration can be topical (including transdermal, epidermal, ophthalmic and to mucous membranes including intranasal, vaginal and rectal delivery), pulmonary (e.g., by inhalation or insufflation of powders or aerosols, including by nebulizer; intratracheal or intranasal), oral or parenteral. Oral administration can include a dosage form formulated for once-daily or twice-daily (BID) administration. Parenteral administration includes intravenous, intraarterial, subcutaneous, intraperitoneal intramuscular or injection or infusion; or intracranial, e.g., intrathecal or intraventricular, administration. Parenteral administration can be in the form of a single bolus dose, or can be, for example, by a continuous perfusion pump. Pharmaceutical compositions and formulations for topical administration can include transdermal patches, ointments, lotions, creams, gels, drops, suppositories, sprays, liquids and powders. Conventional pharmaceutical carriers, aqueous, powder or oily bases, thickeners and the like may be necessary or desirable

Also provided herein are pharmaceutical compositions which contain, as the active ingredient, a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, in combination with one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers (excipients). For example, a pharmaceutical composition prepared using a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof. In some embodiments, the composition is suitable for topical administration. In making the compositions provided herein, the active ingredient is typically mixed with an excipient, diluted by an excipient or enclosed within such a carrier in the form of, for example, a capsule, sachet, paper, or other container. When the excipient serves as a diluent, it can be a solid, semi-solid, or liquid material, which acts as a vehicle, carrier or medium for the active ingredient. Thus, the compositions can be in the form of tablets, pills, powders, lozenges, sachets, cachets, elixirs, suspensions, emulsions, solutions, syrups, aerosols (as a solid or in a liquid medium), ointments containing, for example, up to 10% by weight of the active compound, soft and hard gelatin capsules, suppositories, sterile injectable solutions, and sterile packaged powders. In some embodiments, the composition is formulated for oral administration. In some embodiments, the composition is a solid oral formulation. In some embodiments, the composition is formulated as a tablet or capsule.

Further provided herein are pharmaceutical compositions containing a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. Pharmaceutical compositions containing a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof as the active ingredient can be prepared by intimately mixing the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof with a pharmaceutical carrier according to conventional pharmaceutical compounding techniques. The carrier can take a wide variety of forms depending upon the desired route of administration (e.g., oral, parenteral). In some embodiments, the composition is a solid oral composition.

Suitable pharmaceutically acceptable carriers are well known in the art. Descriptions of some of these pharmaceutically acceptable carriers can be found in The Handbook of Pharmaceutical Excipients, published by the American Pharmaceutical Association and the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain.

Methods of formulating pharmaceutical compositions have been described in numerous publications such as Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms: Tablets, Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Volumes 1-3, edited by Lieberman et al; Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms: Parenteral Medications, Volumes 1-2, edited by Avis et al; and Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms: Disperse Systems, Volumes 1-2, edited by Lieberman et al; published by Marcel Dekker, Inc.

In preparing the compositions in oral dosage form, any of the usual pharmaceutical media can be employed. Thus for liquid oral preparations such as suspensions, elixirs and solutions, suitable carriers and additives include water, glycols, oils, alcohols, flavoring agents, preservatives, stabilizers, coloring agents and the like; for solid oral preparations, such as powders, capsules and tablets, suitable carriers and additives include starches, sugars, diluents, granulating agents, lubricants, binders, disintegrating agents and the like. Suitable binders include, without limitation, starch, gelatin, natural sugars such as glucose or beta-lactose, corn sweeteners, natural and synthetic gums such as acacia., tragacanth or sodium oleate, sodium stearate, magnesium stearate, sodium benzoate, sodium acetate, sodium chloride and the like. Disintegrators include, without limitation, starch, methyl cellulose, agar, bentonite, xanthan gum and the like. Solid oral preparations can also be coated with substances such as sugars or be enteric-coated so as to modulate major site of absorption. For parenteral administration, the carrier will usually consist of sterile water and other ingredients can be added to increase solubility or preservation. Injectable suspensions or solutions can also be prepared utilizing aqueous carriers along with appropriate additives. The pharmaceutical compositions herein will contain, per dosage unit, e.g., tablet, capsule, powder, injection, teaspoonful and the like, an amount of the active ingredient necessary to deliver an effective dose as described herein.

The compositions comprising a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof can be formulated in a unit dosage form, each dosage containing from about 5 to about 1,000 mg (1 g), more usually about 100 mg to about 500 mg, of the active ingredient. The term “unit dosage form” refers to physically discrete units suitable as unitary dosages for human subjects and other patients, each unit containing a predetermined quantity of active material (i.e., a compound of Formula I or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof) calculated to produce the desired therapeutic effect, in association with a suitable pharmaceutical excipient.

In some embodiments, the compositions provided herein contain from about 5 mg to about 50 mg of the active ingredient. One having ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that this embodies compounds or compositions containing about 5 mg to about 10 mg, about 10 mg to about 15 mg, about 15 mg to about 20 mg, about 20 mg to about 25 mg, about 25 mg to about 30 mg, about 30 mg to about 35 mg, about 35 mg to about 40 mg, about 40 mg to about 45 mg, or about 45 mg to about 50 mg of the active ingredient.

In some embodiments, the compositions provided herein contain from about 50 mg to about 500 mg of the active ingredient. One having ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that this embodies compounds or compositions containing about 50 mg to about 100 mg, about 100 mg to about 150 mg, about 150 mg to about 200 mg, about 200 mg to about 250 mg, about 250 mg to about 300 mg, about 350 mg to about 400 mg, or about 450 mg to about 500 mg of the active ingredient. In some embodiments, the compositions provided herein contain about 10 mg, about 20 mg, about 80 mg, or about 160 mg of the active ingredient.

In some embodiments, the compositions provided herein contain from about 500 mg to about 1,000 mg of the active ingredient. One having ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that this embodies compounds or compositions containing about 500 mg to about 550 mg, about 550 mg to about 600 mg, about 600 mg to about 650 mg, about 650 mg to about 700 mg, about 700 mg to about 750 mg, about 750 mg to about 800 mg, about 800 mg to about 850 mg, about 850 mg to about 900 mg, about 900 mg to about 950 mg, or about 950 mg to about 1,000 mg of the active ingredient.

The daily dosage of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof can be varied over a wide range from 1.0 to 10,000 mg per adult human per day, or higher, or any range therein. For oral administration, the compositions are preferably provided in the form of tablets containing, 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 2.5, 5.0, 10.0, 15.0, 25.0, 50.0, 100, 150, 160, 200, 250 and 500 milligrams of the active ingredient for the symptomatic adjustment of the dosage to the patient to be treated. An effective amount of the drug is ordinarily supplied at a dosage level of from about 0.1 mg/kg to about 1000 mg/kg of body weight per day, or any range therein. Preferably, the range is from about 0.5 to about 500 mg/kg of body weight per day, or any range therein. More preferably, from about 1.0 to about 250 mg/kg of body weight per day, or any range therein. More preferably, from about 0.1 to about 100 mg/kg of body weight per day, or any range therein. In an example, the range can be from about 0.1 to about 50.0 mg/kg of body weight per day, or any amount or range therein. In another example, the range can be from about 0.1 to about 15.0 mg/kg of body weight per day, or any range therein. In yet another example, the range can be from about 0.5 to about 7.5 mg/kg of body weight per day, or any amount to range therein. Pharmaceutical compositions containing a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof can be administered on a regimen of 1 to 4 times per day or in a single daily dose.

The active compound may be effective over a wide dosage range and is generally administered in a pharmaceutically effective amount. Optimal dosages to be administered can be readily determined by those skilled in the art. It will be understood, therefore, that the amount of the compound actually administered will usually be determined by a physician, and will vary according to the relevant circumstances, including the mode of administration, the actual compound administered, the strength of the preparation, the condition to be treated, and the advancement of the disease condition. In addition, factors associated with the particular patient being treated, including patient response, age, weight, diet, time of administration and severity of the patient's symptoms, will result in the need to adjust dosages.

In some embodiments, the compounds provided herein can be administered in an amount ranging from about 1 mg/kg to about 100 mg/kg. In some embodiments, the compound provided herein can be administered in an amount of about 1 mg/kg to about 20 mg/kg, about 5 mg/kg to about 50 mg/kg, about 10 mg/kg to about 40 mg/kg, about 15 mg/kg to about 45 mg/kg, about 20 mg/kg to about 60 mg/kg, or about 40 mg/kg to about 70 mg/kg. For example, about 5 mg/kg, about 10 mg/kg, about 15 mg/kg, about 20 mg/kg, about 25 mg/kg, about 30 mg/kg, about 35 mg/kg, about 40 mg/kg, about 45 mg/kg, about 50 mg/kg, about 55 mg/kg, about 60 mg/kg, about 65 mg/kg, about 70 mg/kg, about 75 mg/kg, about 80 mg/kg, about 85 mg/kg, about 90 mg/kg, about 95 mg/kg, or about 100 mg/kg. In some embodiments, such administration can be once-daily or twice-daily (BID) administration.

In some embodiments, the compounds provided herein can be administered in an amount of about about 10 mg twice a day (BID), 20 mg BID, about 40 mg BID, about 60 mg BID, about 80 mg BID, about 120 mg BID, about 160 mg BID, and about 240 mg BID. In some embodiments, each dose is administered at least six hours after the previous dose. In some embodiments, each dose is administered at least twelve hours after the previous dose.

In some embodiments, a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof exhibits pH dependent solubility at lower pH values. Accordingly, patients also receiving proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) and/or antacids may need to adjust the dosage of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof (e.g., increase the dose of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof). In some embodiments, the isoform of cytochrome P450 (CUP) that metabolizes a compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, is CYP3A4. Accordingly, patients also receiving agents that inhibit or induce CYP3A4 may need to adjust the dosage of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof (e.g., increase the dose of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, in the case of a CYP3A4 inducer or decrease the dose of the compound of Formula I, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof, in the case of a CYP3A4 inhibitor).

One skilled in the art will recognize that both in vivo and in vitro trials using suitable, known and generally accepted cell and/or animal models are predictive of the ability of a test compound to treat or prevent a given disorder.

One skilled in the art will further recognize that human clinical trials including first-in-human, dose ranging and efficacy trials, in healthy patients and/or those suffering from a given disorder, can be completed according to methods well known in the clinical and medical arts.

Provided herein are pharmaceutical kits useful, for example, in the treatment of RET-associated diseases or disorders, such as cancer or irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), which include one or more containers containing a pharmaceutical composition comprising a therapeutically effective amount of a compound provided herein. Such kits can further include, if desired, one or more of various conventional pharmaceutical kit components, such as, for example, containers with one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, additional containers, etc., as will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art. Instructions, either as inserts or as labels, indicating quantities of the components to be administered, guidelines for administration, and/or guidelines for mixing the components, can also be included in the kit.

EXAMPLES

The following examples illustrate the invention.

Biological Examples Example A

RET Enzyme Assay

The potency of compounds inhibiting several different RET kinase forms (Wild Type, V804M, M918T, G810R, and G810S) were determined using CisBio's HTRF Kinease-TK assay technology. The kinases were incubated with 250 nM TK-substrate biotin (CisBio, part of cat #62TK0PEC) at Km ATP along with test compounds in a buffer consisting of 25 mM HEPES, pH 7.4, 10 mM MgCl₂, 0.01% Triton X-100, and 2% DMSO in a volume of 8 μL. Compounds were typically prepared as a three-fold serial dilution in DMSO and added to the assay to give the appropriate final concentration. After a 30-min incubation at 22° C., the reaction was quenched by adding 8 μL of quench solution containing 31.25 nM Sa-XL665 and 1× TK-Ab-Cryptate in HTRF detection buffer (all from CisBio, part of cat #62TK0PEC). After a 1 hour incubation at 22° C., the extent of reaction was determined using a PerkinElmer EnVision multimode plate reader via HTRF dual wavelength detection, and the percent of control (POC) was calculated using a ratiometric emission factor. One hundred POC was determined using DMSO only samples (no compound present), and 0 POC was determined using pre-quenched control reactions. A 4-parameter logistic curve was fit to the POC values as a function of the concentration of compound, and the IC₅₀ value was the point where the best-fit curve crossed 50 POC. Enzyme lots and concentrations used as shown in the Table below, and the IC₅₀ values for the compounds tested in these assay are provided in Table 5.

Enzyme ATP Concen- Concen- Enzyme tration tration form Vendor Lot Number (nM) (μM) Wild Type Eurofins 3654890-B 0.75 10 V804M Millipore D8KN029U-C 0.5 10 M918T Carna 09CBS-1147D 1 4 G810R Array 160713 5 15 BioPharma Inc. G810S Array 170322A 0.5 15 BioPharma Inc.

Example B

RET Cell Assay

The cellular potency of compounds inhibiting RET kinase were determined in HEK-293 cells expressing a Kif5b-RET fusion protein. Briefly, HEK-293 cells expressing a Kif5b-RET fusion protein were plated at 50K cells/well in 96 well poly-D-Lysine coated plates the day prior to the assay. The cells were incubated for 1 hour with test compound in DMEM (Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Medium) at a final DMSO concentration of 0.5%. Compounds were typically prepared in a three-fold serial dilution in DMSO and added to the assay to give the appropriate final concentration. After 1 hour the media was removed, the cells were fixed with 3.8% formaldehyde for 20 min, washed with PBS, and permeabilized for 10 min with 100% methanol. The plates were then washed with PBS-0.05% Tween20, and blocked with LI-COR Blocking solution (LI-COR Catalog No. 927-40000) for 1 hour. Plates were washed with PBS-0.05% Tween20, then incubated with anti-phospho-RET(Tyr1062) (Santa Cruz Catalog No. sc-20252-R) antibody and anti-GAPDH (Millipore Catalog No. MAB374) antibody for 2 hours. The plates were washed with PBS-0.05% Tween20, and incubated with anti-rabbit 680 (Molecular Probes Catalog No. A21109) and anti-mouse 800 (LI-COR Catalog No. 926-32210) secondary antibodies for 1 hour. All antibodies were diluted in LI-COR Block containing 0.05% Tween. The plates were washed with PBS-0.05% Tween20, 100 μL PBS is added to each well, and the plates were read on a LI-COR Aerius fluorescent plate reader. The phospho-RET signal was normalized to the GAPDH signal. 100 POC (percent of control) was determined using no test compounds and 0 POC was determined using 1 μM of a control inhibitor. The POC values were fit to a 4 parameter logistic curve. The IC₅₀ value is the point where the curve crosses 50 POC. IC₅₀ values for the compounds tested in these assay are provided in Table 5.

Example C

RET G810R and G810S Mutant Cell Assay

The cellular potency of compounds inhibiting RET kinase were determined in HEK-293 cells expressing a G810R or G810S mutant RET Kif5b-RET fusion protein. Briefly, HEK-293 cells expressing a G810R or G810S mutant RET Kif5b-RET fusion protein were plated at 50K cells/well in 96 well poly-D-Lysine coated plates the day prior to the assay. The cells were incubated for 1 hour with test compound in DMEM (Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Medium) at a final DMSO concentration of 0.5%. Compounds were typically prepared in a three-fold serial dilution in DMSO and added to the assay to give the appropriate final concentration. After 1 hour the media was removed, the cells were fixed with 3.8% formaldehyde for 20 min, washed with PBS, and permeabilized for 10 min with 100% methanol. The plates were then washed with PBS-0.05% Tween20, and blocked with LI-COR Blocking solution (LI-COR Catalog No. 927-40000) for 1 hour. Plates were washed with PBS-0.05% Tween20, then incubated with anti-phospho-RET(Tyr1062) (Santa Cruz Catalog No. sc-20252-R) antibody and anti-GAPDH (Millipore Catalog No. MAB374) antibody for 2 hours. The plates were washed with PBS-0.05% Tween20, and incubated with anti-rabbit 680 (Molecular Probes Catalog No. A21109) and anti-mouse 800 (LI-COR Catalog No. 926-32210) secondary antibodies for 1 hour. All antibodies were diluted in LI-COR Block containing 0.05% Tween. The plates were washed with PBS-0.05% Tween20, 100 μL PBS was added to each well, and the plates were read on a LI-COR Aerius fluorescent plate reader. The phospho-RET signal was normalized to the GAPDH signal. 100 POC (percent of control) was determined using no test compounds and 0 POC was determined using 1 μM of a control inhibitor. The POC values are fit to a 4 parameter logistic curve. The IC₅₀ value is the point where the curve crosses 50 POC. IC₅₀ values for the compounds tested in these assays are provided in Table 5.

TABLE 5 IC₅₀ values of compounds tested in the assay of Examples A-C. RET RET RET RET RET KIF5B- KIF5B- KIF5B- Enz V804M M918T G810R G810S RET RET RET FRET Enz Enz Enz Enz pTYR1062 G810R G810S WT FRET FRET FRET FRET Cell Cell Cell Ex # IC₅₀ (nM) IC₅₀ (nM) IC₅₀ (nM) IC₅₀ (nM) IC₅₀ (nM) IC₅₀ (nM) IC₅₀ (nM) IC₅₀ (nM) 1 2.1 5.7 1.8 3.8 11.7 263 ND ND 2 1.2 2.1 1.1 4.4 4.4 75 247 ND 3 7.1 52.5 12.2 12.5 46.6 ND ND ND 4 5.2 28.8 7.6 13.5 37.3 ND ND ND 5 2.7 20.5 3.2 7.1 11.7 105 ND ND 6 4.7 23.9 4.5 10 26.2 488 ND ND 7 7.1 52.2 8.7 8.4 38.9 ND ND ND 8 2.9 29 3.9 3.9 20.6 ND ND ND 9 0.3 0.6 0.2 1.4 1.4 24 137 ND 10 1.5 13.8 2.2 4.1 13.6 199 ND ND 11 1.5 4.4 1.2 3.5 4.9 86 ND ND 12 5.3 15.1 4.1 11.4 24.3 ND ND ND 13 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.9 0.6 7 47 18 14 1.2 7 1.5 4.1 4.9 35 86 ND 15 1.3 6.5 1.6 6.3 6.3 42 263 ND 16 0.6 1.3 0.7 3.6 4 28 162 ND 17 0.7 7.5 0.8 2.2 3.7 68 264 ND 18 1.1 3.1 1 4.4 4.3 42 ND ND 19 3.9 417.7 6.1 28.9 24.1 40 628 ND 20 21.1 1000 46.5 70.5 225.7 ND ND ND 21 2.1 260.1 4.1 19.5 17.9 36 342 ND 22 2.3 307.3 3 16.5 13 21 214 ND 23 4.1 27.4 8.5 15.8 46 344 10039 ND 24 8.7 1000 9.8 55 54.3 ND ND ND 25 8.4 1000 16.3 48.6 79.8 ND ND ND 26 8 1000 14.2 31.3 87.4 ND ND ND 27 11.6 1000 22.3 42.9 406.2 ND ND ND 28 379.2 275.8 1000 1000 1000 ND ND ND 29 61.7 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 30 65.9 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 31 155.7 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 32 44.7 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 33 65.9 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 34 37.3 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 35 7.2 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND = not determined.

Synthetic Examples Synthesis of Synthetic Intermediates Intermediate 1

3-bromo-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine

A solution of 3-bromo-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (11 g, 51.4 mmol) in DMF (103 mL) was treated with K₂CO_(3(s)) (14.2 g, 103 mmol) and 2-bromopropane (5.31 mL, 56.5 mmol). The resulting mixture was stirred for 15 h at 85° C., before introducing additional 2-bromopropane (1.45 mL, 15.4 mmol) and resuming heating for another 1 h. After cooling to RT, the mixture then was diluted with water (800 mL), and extracted with EtOAc (2×500 mL). The combined organic extracts were back extracted with water (3×500 mL), and then dried over anhydrous Na₂SO_(4(s)), filtered, and concentrated to afford the title compound (12.3 g, 93%). MS (apci) m/z=256.0, 258.0 (M+H).

Preparation of Synthetic Examples Preparation of Synthetic Examples Example 1

3-(4-bromo-5-cyclopropylisoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine

Step 1: Preparation of 2-((5-cyclopropylisoxazol-3-yl)(methoxy)methylene)malononitrile. A suspension of 5-cyclopropylisoxazole-3-carboxylic acid (5.00 g, 32.7 mmol) in DCM (30 mL) was treated sequentially with oxalyl chloride (7.15 mL, 81.6 mmol) and DMF (30 μL, 32.7 mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred for 1.5 h at RT, and then concentrated. The resulting residue was suspended in THE (65.3 mL), cooled to 0° C., and then treated with malononitrile (2.59 g, 39.2 mmol) and DIPEA (14.3 mL, 81.6 mmol). After stirring the reaction mixture for 48 h at 0° C., and 2 h at RT, dimethyl sulfate (9.36 mL, 98.0 mmol) was added. The resulting reaction mixture was stirred at 70° C. until LCMS indicated complete consumption of starting materials. The mixture then was cooled to RT, and diluted with water (50 mL). The aqueous mixture was extracted with EtOAc. The combined organic extracts were concentrated. The resulting residue was purified by silica chromatography (0-20% EtOAc in hexanes) to afford the title compound (2.27 g, 32%).

Step 2: Preparation of 5-amino-3-(5-cyclopropylisoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazole-4-carbonitrile. A solution of 2-((5-cyclopropylisoxazol-3-yl)(methoxy)methylene)malononitrile (365 mg, 1.70 mmol) and isopropylhydrazine hydrochloride (223.1 mg, 2.035 mmol) in EtOH (8.48 mL) was treated with TEA (591.0 μl, 4.240 mmol). After stirring for 1 h at RT, the mixture was diluted with EtOAc (100 mL), and washed with water. The organic extracts were dried over anhydrous Na₂SO_(4(s)), filtered, and concentrated. The crude residue was purified by silica chromatography (0-80% EtOAc in hexanes) to afford the title compound (250 mg, 57%). MS (apci) m/z=258.1 (M+H).

Step 3: Preparation of 3-(5-cyclopropylisoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine. A solution of 5-amino-3-(5-cyclopropylisoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazole-4-carbonitrile (193 mg, 0.750 mmol) in formamide (7.50 mL) was stirred for 15 h at 150° C. After cooling to ca. 80° C., the reaction mixture was quenched with water (40 mL), and filtered. The filter cake was rinsed with water (5 mL), and then dried. The solids (210 mg) were purified by silica chromatography (0-70% EtOAc in hexanes) to afford the title compound (190 mg, 89%). MS (apci) m/z=285.2 (M+H).

Step 4: Preparation of 3-(4-bromo-5-cyclopropylisoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine. A mixture of 3-(5-cyclopropylisoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (52 mg, 0.18 mmol), NBS (65 mg, 0.37 mmol) and DMF (914 μL) was stirred for 1 h at RT, and then for 4 h at 50° C. After cooling to RT, the reaction mixture was diluted with EtOAc (10 mL), and washed with water (2×10 mL). The organic extracts were concentrated. The residue was purified by silica chromatography (0-100% EtOAc in DCM) to afford the title compound (54 mg, 82%). MS (apci) m/z=363.0 (M+H).

Example 2

3-(5-cyclopropyl-4-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-3-yl)isoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine

In a pressure vessel, a mixture of 3-(4-bromo-5-cyclopropylisoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (Example 1; 20 mg, 0.055 mmol), 1-methyl-3-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)-1H-pyrazole (23 mg, 0.11 mmol), Pd(PPh₃)₄ (6.4 mg, 0.0055 mmol) and 2 M Na₂CO_(3(aq)) (138 μL, 0.28 mmol) in (methoxymethoxy)ethane (551 μL) was sparged with Ar_((g)). Subsequently, the vessel was sealed, and the mixture was stirred for 60 h at 80° C. After cooling to RT, the reaction mixture was directly purified by silica chromatography (0-10% MeOH in DCM) to afford the title compound (6.5 mg, 32%). MS (apci) m/z=365.2 (M+H).

Example 3

3-(5-cyclopropyl-4-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)isoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine

The title compound was prepared, worked up and purified using a similar procedure to that described for 3-(5-cyclopropyl-4-(1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-3-yl)isoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (Example 2), replacing 1-methyl-3-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)-1H-pyrazole with 1-methyl-4-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)-1H-pyrazole and (methoxymethoxy)ethane with 1,2-dimethoxyethane. MS (apci) m/z=365.2 (M+H).

Example 4

3-(5-cyclopropyl-4-(3,6-dihydro-2H-pyran-4-yl)isoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine

In a pressure vessel, a mixture of 3-(4-bromo-5-cyclopropylisoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (Example 1; 14 mg, 0.039 mmol), 2-(3,6-dihydro-2H-pyran-4-yl)-4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolane (16 mg, 0.077 mmol), Pd(PPh₃)₄ (4.5 mg, 0.0039 mmol) and 2 M Na₂CO_(3(aq)) (96 μL, 0.19 mmol) in dimethoxymethane (385 μL) was sparged with Ar_((g)). Subsequently, the vessel was sealed, and the mixture was stirred for 60 h at 80° C. After cooling to RT, the reaction mixture was quenched with water, and extracted with EtOAc. The organic extracts were concentrated, and the resulting residue was purified by silica chromatography (0-60% EtOAc in hexanes) to afford the title compound (8 mg, 57%). MS (apci) m/z=367.2 (M+H).

Example 5

4-(3-(4-amino-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-3-yl)-5-cyclopropylisoxazol-4-yl)cyclohex-3-en-1-one

Step 1: Preparation of 3-(5-cyclopropyl-4-(1,4-dioxaspiro[4.5]dec-7-en-8-yl)isoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine. In a pressure vessel, a mixture of 3-(4-bromo-5-cyclopropylisoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (Example 1; 54 mg, 0.15 mmol), 4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-2-(1,4-dioxaspiro[4.5]dec-7-en-8-yl)-1,3,2-dioxaborolane (79 mg, 0.30 mmol), Pd(PPh₃)₄ (17 mg, 0.015 mmol) and 2 M Na₂CO_(3(aq)) (372 μL, 0.74 mmol) in dimethoxymethane (1.5 mL) was sparged with Ar_((g)). Subsequently, the vessel was sealed, and the mixture was stirred 20 h at 90° C. After cooling to RT, the reaction mixture was concentrated, and the resulting residue was purified by silica chromatography (0-75% EtOAc in hexanes) to afford the title compound (39 mg, 62%). MS (apci) m/z=423.3 (M+H).

Step 2: Preparation of 4-(3-(4-amino-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-3-yl)-5-cyclopropylisoxazol-4-yl)cyclohex-3-en-1-one. A solution of 3-(5-cyclopropyl-4-(1,4-dioxaspiro[4.5]dec-7-en-8-yl)isoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (42.2 mg, 0.100 mmol) in MeOH (3 mL) was treated with concentrated HCl (12 M; 300 μL, 3.54 mmol). After stirring for 30 min at RT, the mixture was quenched with saturated NaHCO_(3(aq)), and then extracted with EtOAc. The organic extracts were concentrated, and the crude residue was purified by silica chromatography (0-100% EtOAc in hexanes) to afford the title compound (19 mg, 50%). MS (apci) m/z=379.2 (M+H).

Example 6

3-(5-cyclopropyl-4-phenylisoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine

In a pressure vessel, a mixture of 3-(4-bromo-5-cyclopropylisoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (Example 1; 20 mg, 0.055 mmol), phenylboronic acid (13 mg, 0.11 mmol), Pd(PPh₃)₄ (6.4 mg, 0.0055 mmol) and 2 M Na₂CO_(3(aq)) (110 μL, 0.22 mmol) in EtOH (551 μL) was sparged with Ar_((g)). Subsequently, the vessel was sealed, and the mixture was stirred 4 h at 100° C. After cooling to RT, the reaction mixture was concentrated, and the resulting residue was purified by silica chromatography (0-50% EtOAc in hexanes) to provide the title compound (7 mg, 35%). MS (apci) m/z=361.2 (M+H).

Example 7

3-(5-cyclopropyl-4-(pyridin-3-yl)isoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine

In a pressure vessel, a mixture of 3-(4-bromo-5-cyclopropylisoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (Example 1; 20 mg, 0.055 mmol), pyridin-3-ylboronic acid (14 mg, 0.11 mmol), Pd(PPh₃)₄ (6.4 mg, 0.0055 mmol) and 2 M Na₂CO_(3(aq)) (110 μL, 0.22 mmol) in EtOH (551 μL) was sparged with Ar_((g)). Subsequently, the vessel was sealed, and the mixture was stirred 18 h at 90° C. After cooling to RT, the reaction mixture was concentrated. The resulting residue was purified by C18 reverse phase chromatography (0-95% ACN in water with 0.1% TFA) to provide the TFA salt of the title compound. The desired fractions were combined, and passed through a Pl-HCO₃ resin to elute the product as the free base. The organic eluents were concentrated to afford the title compound (18 mg, 90%). MS (apci) m/z=362.2 (M+H).

Example 8

3-(5-cyclopropyl-4-(pyridin-4-yl)isoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine

In a pressure vessel, a mixture of 3-(4-bromo-5-cyclopropylisoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (Example 1; 10 mg, 0.028 mmol), pyridin-4-ylboronic acid (6.8 mg, 0.055 mmol), Pd(PPh₃)₄ (10 mg, 0.028 mmol) and 2 M Na₂CO_(3(aq)) (69 μL, 0.14 mmol) in EtOH (275 μL) was sparged with Ar_((g)). Subsequently, the vessel was sealed, and the mixture was stirred 60 h at 80° C. After cooling to RT, the reaction mixture was concentrated. The resulting residue was purified by C18 reverse phase chromatography (0-95% ACN in water with 0.1% TFA) to provide the TFA salt of the title compound. The desired fractions were combined, and passed through a Pl-HCO₃ resin to elute the product as the free base. The organic eluents were concentrated to afford the title compound (4 mg, 40%). MS (apci) m/z=362.1 (M+H).

Example 9

3-(5-cyclopropyl-4-(3,4-dihydro-2H-pyran-6-yl)isoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine

In a pressure vessel, a mixture of 3-(4-bromo-5-cyclopropylisoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (Example 1; 20 mg, 0.055 mmol), 2-(3,4-dihydro-2H-pyran-6-yl)-4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolane (23 mg, 0.11 mmol), PdCl₂(PPh₃)₂ (3.9 mg, 0.0055 mmol) and 2 M Na₂CO_(3(aq)) (138 μL, 0.28 mmol) in dimethoxymethane (551 μL) was sparged with Ar_((g)). Subsequently, the vessel was sealed, and the mixture was stirred 23 h at 90° C. After cooling to RT, the reaction mixture was diluted with water, and extracted with EtOAc. The combined organic extracts were dried over anhydrous Na₂SO_(4(s)), filtered, and concentrated. The crude residue was purified by silica chromatography (0-50% EtOAc in hexanes) to afford the title compound (6 mg, 30%). MS (apci) m/z=367.2 (M+H).

Example 10

3-(5-cyclopropyl-4-(3,4-dihydro-2H-pyran-5-yl)isoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine

The title compound (5 mg, 33%) was prepared, worked up and purified using a similar procedure to that described for 3-(5-cyclopropyl-4-(3,4-dihydro-2H-pyran-6-yl)isoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (Example 9), replacing 2-(3,4-dihydro-2H-pyran-6-yl)-4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolane with 2-(3,4-dihydro-2H-pyran-5-yl)-4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolane. MS (apci) m/z=367.2 (M+H).

Example 11

3-(5-cyclopropyl-4-(pyrimidin-2-yl)isoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine

In a pressure vessel, a mixture of 3-(4-bromo-5-cyclopropylisoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (Example 1; 36 mg, 0.099 mmol), 2-(tributylstannyl)pyrimidine (48 mg, 0.13 mmol) and PdCl₂(PPh₃)₂ (7.0 mg, 0.0099 mmol) in toluene (991 μL) was sparged with Ar_((g)). Subsequently, the vessel was sealed. The reaction mixture was stirred for 15 h at 100° C. LCMS indicated incomplete reaction; therefore the reaction mixture was cooled to RT and was treated with PdCl₂[P(cy)₃]₂ (7.27 mg, 0.0099 mmol) along with CsF (29 mg, 0.20 mmol). After sparging the mixture with Ar_((g)), the vessel was sealed, and the mixture was stirred for 60 h at 100° C. Subsequently, the mixture was cooled to RT, and concentrated. The crude residue was purified by C18 reverse phase chromatography (0-95% ACN in water with 0.1% TFA) to provide the TFA salt of the title compound. The desired fractions were combined, and passed through a Pl-HCO₃ resin to elute the free-based product. The organic eluents were concentrated to provide the title compound (1.2 mg, 3%). MS (apci) m/z=363.2 (M+H).

Example 12

3-(5-cyclopropyl-4-iodoisoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine

A mixture of 3-(5-cyclopropylisoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (Example 1, Step 3; 54 mg, 0.19 mmol), 1-iodopyrrolidine-2,5-dione (56 mg, 0.25 mmol) in TFA (950 μl, 0.19 mmol) was stirred for 2 h at 60° C. The reaction mixture then was cooled to RT, and concentrated. The residue was treated sequentially with 10% Na₂S₂O_(3(aq)) and saturated NaHCO_(3(aq)). The resulting aqueous mixture was extracted with DCM. The combined DCM extracts were concentrated, and the crude residue was purified by silica chromatography (0-50% EtOAc in hexanes) to afford the title compound (79 mg, quantitative). MS (apci) m/z=411.0 (M+H).

Example 13

3-(5-cyclopropyl-4-(pyridin-2-yl)isoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine

Method A:

A mixture of 3-(4-bromo-5-cyclopropylisoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (Example 1; 30 mg, 0.083 mmol), 2-(tributylstannyl)pyridine (40 mg, 0.11 mmol), CsF (31 mg, 0.21 mmol) and PdCl₂[P(cy)₃]₂ (6.1 mg, 0.0083 mmol) in toluene (826 μL) in a sealed pressure vessel was stirred for 4 h at 100° C. After cooling to RT, the reaction mixture was treated with Pd(PPh₃)₄ (26.2 mg, 0.0099 mmol), purged with Ar_((g)), heated for an additional 60 h at 100° C., and then cooled to RT and concentrated. The crude residue was purified by C18 reverse phase chromatography (0-95% ACN in water with 0.1% TFA). The desired fractions were combined and concentrated to afford the TFA salt of the title compound. The TFA salt was dissolved in MeOH, and passed through a Pl-HCO₃ resin to elute the product as the free base. The organic eluents were concentrated to provide the title compound (3.7 mg, 12%). MS (apci) m/z=362.2 (M+H).

Method B:

In a pressure vessel, a mixture of 3-(5-cyclopropyl-4-iodoisoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (Example 12; 410 mg, 0.999 mmol), 2-(tributylstannyl)pyridine (478 mg, 1.30 mmol), PdCl₂[P(cy)₃]₂ (73.8 mg, 0.0999 mmol) and CsF (304 mg, 2.00 mmol) in toluene (10 mL) was sparged with Ar_((g)). Subsequently, the vessel was sealed, and the mixture was stirred for 60 h at 100° C. After cooling to RT, the reaction mixture was concentrated, and the crude residue was purified by C18 reverse phase chromatography (0-95% ACN in water with 0.1% TFA) to provide the TFA salt of the title compound. The desired fractions were combined and concentrated to afford the TFA salt of the title compound. The TFA salt was diluted with saturated NaHCO_(3(aq)) and extracted with DCM. The combined DCM extracts were dried over anhydrous Na₂SO_(4(s)), filtered, and concentrated to afford the title compound (142 mg, 39%). MS (apci) m/z=362.2 (M+H).

Example 14

4-(3-(4-amino-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-3-yl)-5-cyclopropylisoxazol-4-yl)cyclohex-3-en-1-ol

A solution of 4-(3-(4-amino-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-3-yl)-5-cyclopropylisoxazol-4-yl)cyclohex-3-en-1-one (Example 5; 6.0 mg, 0.016 mmol) in EtOH (317 μL) was treated with NaBH₄ (1.8 mg, 0.048 mmol), and then stirred for 30 min at RT. Subsequently, the mixture was concentrated. The residue was purified by silica chromatography (0-7% MeOH in DCM) to afford the title compound (4.5 mg, 75%). MS (apci) m/z=381.2 (M+H).

Example 15

4-(3-(4-amino-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-3-yl)-5-cyclopropylisoxazol-4-yl)-1-methylcyclohex-3-en-1-ol

A solution of 4-(3-(4-amino-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-3-yl)-5-cyclopropylisoxazol-4-yl)cyclohex-3-en-1-one (Example 5; 4.0 mg, 0.011 mmol) in THE (211 μL) was treated with MeMgBr in (3 M Et₂O, 21 μL, 0.063 mmol). After stirring for 10 min at RT, the reaction mixture was quenched with MeOH. The methanolic mixture was then concentrated, and the residue was purified by silica chromatography (0-100% EtOAc in hexanes) to afford the title compound (1.5 mg, 36%). MS (apci) m/z=395.3 (M+H).

Example 16

3-(5-cyclopropyl-4-(tetrahydro-2H-pyran-2-yl)isoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine

A mixture of 3-(5-cyclopropyl-4-(3,4-dihydro-2H-pyran-6-yl)isoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (Example 9; 4.2 mg, 0.011 mmol) and Pd/C (12 mg, 0.011 mmol) in MeOH (1 mL) was stirred under a balloon of H_(2(g)) for 26 h at RT. Subsequently, the reaction mixture was filtered through Celite®, and the filtrate was concentrated. The resulting residue was purified by silica chromatography (0-80% EtOAc in hexanes) to afford the title compound (1.8 mg, 43%). MS (apci) m/z=369.1 (M+H).

Example 17

3-(5-cyclopropyl-4-(tetrahydro-2H-pyran-4-yl)isoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine

A mixture of 3-(5-cyclopropyl-4-(3,6-dihydro-2H-pyran-4-yl)isoxazol-3-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (Example 4; 5 mg, 0.01 mmol) and PtO₂ (3 mg, 0.01 mmol) in EtOAc (1 μL) was stirred under a balloon of H_(2(g)) for 20 h at RT. The reaction mixture then was filtered through Celite®, and the filtrate was concentrated. The crude residue was purified by silica chromatography (0-60% EtOAc in hexanes) to afford the title compound (2 mg, 40%). MS (apci) m/z=369.1 (M+H).

Example 18

(R)-1-(3-(4-amino-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-3-yl)-4-(pyridin-2-yl)isoxazol-5-yl)ethan-1-ol

Step 1: Preparation of 3-iodo-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine. To a suspension of 3-iodo-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (10 g, 36.39 mmol) in DMF (72.79 mL) were added K₂CO_(3(s)) (10.06 g, 72.79 mmol) and 2-bromopropane (4442 μL, 47.31 mmol) at RT. The resulting mixture was stirred for 15 h at 80° C. before additional 2-bromopropane (500 μL, 5.33 mmol) was introduced, and heating resumed for another 2 h. Upon cooled to RT, the reaction was diluted with water (800 mL) and extracted with EtOAc (2×500 mL). The combined organic extracts were back extracted with water (3×500 mL), then dried (Na₂SO₄), filtered, and concentrated to afford the title compound (10.09 g, 91%). MS (apci) m/z=304.0 (M+1); 305.1 (M+2).

Step 2: Preparation of 1-isopropyl-3-vinyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine. In a pressure vessel, a mixture of 3-iodo-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (2.0 g, 6.60 mmol), Et₃N (1.84 mL, 13.2 mmol), Pd(PPh₃)₄ (76.2 mg, 0.0660 mmol) and CuI (251 mg, 1.32 mmol) in DMF (66.0 mL) was sparged with Ar_((g)), and then treated with tributyl(vinyl)tin (3.86 mL, 13.2 mmol). The reaction was then sealed and stirred for 8 h at 60° C. After cooling to RT, the mixture was diluted with EtOAc, and washed with water. The organic extracts were purified directly by silica chromatography (0-5% MeOH in DCM) to afford the title compound (1.21 g, 90%). MS (apci) m/z=304 (M+H).

Step 3: Preparation of 4-amino-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine-3-carbaldehyde. A solution of 1-isopropyl-3-vinyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (1.21 g, 5.95 mmol) in THE (59.5 mL) and water (18 mL) was cooled to 0° C., and then treated with 50% NMO_((aq)) (2.77 mL, 13.4 mmol) followed by 4% OSO_(4(aq)) (3.77 mL, 0.617 mmol). After stirring for 5 min at 0° C., NaIO_(4(s)) (2.55 g, 11.9 mmol) was slowly added. The reaction was allowed to warm up to RT and stirred overnight. It was diluted with EtOAc and filtered through Celite®. The filtrate was washed with saturated Na₂SO_(3(aq)), and the aqueous phase was back extracted with EtOAc (2×). The combined organic extracts were washed with water, dried (Na₂SO₄), filtered, and concentrated to afford the title compound (1.09 g, 89%). MS (apci) m/z=206 (M+H).

Step 4: Preparation of (E)-4-amino-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine-3-carbaldehyde oxime. A solution of 4-amino-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine-3-carbaldehyde (500 mg, 2.44 mmol) in EtOH (3.87 mL) was treated with NH₂OH.HCl (423 mg, 6.09 mmol) and NaOAc (480 mg, 5.85 mmol). The resulting mixture was stirred overnight at RT and concentrated. The residue was purified by silica chromatography (0-10% MeOH in DCM) to afford the title compound (430 mg, 80%). MS (apci) m/z=221.1 (M+H).

Step 5: Preparation of (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-3-yl)isoxazol-5-yl)ethan-1-ol. To a solution of (E)-4-amino-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine-3-carbaldehyde oxime (270 mg, 1.23 mmol) and (R)-(+)-3-butyn-2-ol (145 μL, 1.84 mmol) in 1:1 t-BuOH:H₂O (12 mL) was slowly added BTI (1054 mg, 2.45 mmol) at RT. After stirring at RT for 7 h, the reaction mixture was diluted with EtOAc and washed with 1 N NaOH_((aq)). The organic extracts were dried over anhydrous Na₂SO_(4(s)), filtered and concentrated. The residue was purified by silica chromatography (0-10% MeOH in DCM) to afford the title compound (90 mg, 26%). MS (apci) m/z=287.1 (M−H).

Step 6: Preparation of (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-3-yl)-4-iodoisoxazol-5-yl)ethan-1-ol. A solution of (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-3-yl)isoxazol-5-yl)ethan-1-ol (9.0 mg, 0.031 mmol) in TFA (156 μL, 0.031 mmol) was treated with NIS (9.1 mg, 0.040 mmol) at RT, then sealed and stirred overnight at 60° C. Upon cooling to RT, the reaction mixture was washed with saturated NaHCO_(3(aq)), then dried over anhydrous Na₂SO_(4(s)), filtered and concentrated to afford the title compound (8 mg, 62%). MS (apci) m/z=415.0 (M+H).

Step 7: Preparation of (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-3-yl-4-(pyridin-2-yl)isoxazol-5-yl)ethan-1-ol. In a pressure vessel, a mixture of (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-3-yl)-4-iodoisoxazol-5-yl)ethan-1-ol (18 mg, 0.04346 mmol) in toluene (217.3 μL), 2-(tributylstannyl)pyridine (18.29 μL, 0.05649 mmol), Pd(PPh₃)₄ (5.022 mg, 0.004346 mmol) and CsF (13.20 mg, 0.08691 mmol) was sparged with Ar_((g)), then sealed and stirred for 2 h at 110° C. After cooling to RT, the reaction mixture was concentrated and purified by silica chromatography (0-10% MeOH in DCM) to afford the title compound (1.6 mg, 10%). MS (apci) m/z=366.2 (M+H).

Example 19

3-(3-cyclopropyl-1-(tetrahydro-2H-pyran-2-yl)-1H-pyrazol-5-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine

In a pressure vessel, a mixture of 3-bromo-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (Intermediate 1; 50 mg, 0.20 mmol), 3-cyclopropyl-1-(tetrahydro-2H-pyran-2-yl)-5-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)-1H-pyrazole (68 mg, 0.21 mmol) and Pd(PPh₃)₄ (5.6 mg, 0.0049 mmol) in dioxane (781 μL) was treated with 2 N K₂CO_(3(aq)) (586 μL, 1.2 mmol). Subsequently, the vessel was purged with N_(2(g)), and then sealed. The reaction mixture was stirred for 5 h at 100° C., before introducing additional 3-cyclopropyl-1-(tetrahydro-2H-pyran-2-yl)-5-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)-1H-pyrazole (124 mg, 0.382 mmol). The reaction mixture then was stirred overnight at 100° C. After cooling to RT, the biphasic reaction mixture was separated, and the organic phase was concentrated. The resulting residue was purified by reverse phase chromatography (5 to 55% ACN in water) to provide the title compound (20 mg, 24%). MS (apci) m/z=368.3 (M+H).

Example 20

1-isopropyl-3-(3-isopropyl-1-(tetrahydro-2H-pyran-2-yl)-1H-pyrazol-5-yl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine

In a pressure vessel, a mixture of 3-bromo-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (Intermediate 1; 50 mg, 0.20 mmol), 3-isopropyl-1-(tetrahydro-2H-pyran-2-yl)-5-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)-1H-pyrazole (94 mg, 0.29 mmol) and Pd(PPh₃)₄ (5.6 mg, 0.0049 mmol) in dioxane (781 μL) was treated with 2 N K₂CO_(3(aq)) (586 μL, 1.2 mmol). Subsequently, the vessel was purged with N_(2(g)), and then sealed. The reaction mixture was stirred for 22 h at 100° C. After cooling to RT, the biphasic reaction mixture was separated, and the organic phase was concentrated. The resulting residue was purified by reverse phase chromatography (5 to 60% ACN/water) to provide the title compound (56 mg, 78%). MS (apci) m/z=370.3 (M+H).

The compounds in Table A were prepared using a similar method to that described in the synthesis of 1-isopropyl-3-(3-isopropyl-1-(tetrahydro-2H-pyran-2-yl)-1H-pyrazol-5-yl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (Example 20), replacing 3-isopropyl-1-(tetrahydro-2H-pyran-2-yl)-5-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)-1H-pyrazole with the appropriate boronate ester. Reactions were monitored for completion by LCMS, as such reaction durations were adjusted accordingly. Title compounds were isolated following chromatographic purification using an appropriate gradient eluent.

TABLE A MS Ex apci # Structure Chemical Name (m/z) 21

1-isopropyl-3-(3- methyl-1- (tetrahydro-2H- pyran-2-yl)-1H- pyrazol-5-yl)-1H- pyrazolo[3,4- d]pyrimidin-4- amine 342.3 (M + H) 22

1-isopropyl-3-(1- (tetrahydro-2H- pyran-2-yl)-3- vinyl-1H-pyrazol- 5-yl)-1H- pyrazolo[3,4- d]pyrimidin-4- amine 354.2 (M + H) 23

1-isopropyl-3-(1- (tetrahydro-2H- pyran-2-yl)-1H- pyrazol-5-yl)-1H- pyrazolo[3,4- d]pyrimidin-4- amine 328.2 (M + H) 24

1-isopropyl-3-(3- phenyl-1- (tetrahydro-2H- pyran-2-yl)-1H- pyrazol-5-yl)- 1H-pyrazolo[3,4- d]pyrimidin-4- amine 404.2 (M + H)

Example 25

1-isopropyl-3-(1-(tetrahydro-2H-pyran-2-yl)-3-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-pyrazol-5-yl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine

In a pressure vessel, a mixture of 3-bromo-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (Intermediate 1; 50 mg, 0.20 mmol), (1-(tetrahydro-2H-pyran-2-yl)-3-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-pyrazol-5-yl)boronic acid (77 mg, 0.29 mmol) and Pd(PPh₃)₄ (5.6 mg, 0.0049 mmol) in dioxane (781 μL) was treated with 2 N K₂CO_(3(aq)) (586 μL, 1.2 mmol). Subsequently, the vessel was purged with N_(2(g)), and then sealed. The reaction mixture was stirred for 24 h at 65° C., and then for 2 d at 100° C. After cooling to RT, the biphasic reaction mixture was separated, and the organic phase was purified directly by reverse phase chromatography (5 to 65% ACN in water) to provide the title compound (9.1 mg, 12%). MS (apci) m/z=396.2 (M+H).

Example 26

3-(1-cyclohexyl-3-cyclopropyl-1H-pyrazol-5-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine

Step 1: Preparation of N-(3-bromo-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-yl)acetamide. A solution of 3-bromo-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (5.2 g, 20.3 mmol) in Ac₂O (25 mL, 20.3 mmol) was stirred for 30 min at 100° C. The reaction mixture then was cooled to RT, and concentrated. The residue was suspended in hexanes (50 mL) and briefly sonicated before it was filtered. The solid collected was reserved, and the filtrate was concentrated. The filtrate residue was purified by silica chromatography (0-30% EtOAc in hexanes). The solids collected from the initial filtration then were combined with the desired material from the chromatographic purification to afford the title compound (5.50 g, 91%). MS (apci) m/z=298.1 (M+1); 300.1 (M+1).

Step 2: Preparation of sodium hydrogen (4-acetamido-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-3-yl)boronate. Under an atmosphere of Ar_((g)), a mixture of N-(3-bromo-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-yl)acetamide (900 mg, 3.02 mmol), bis(pinacolato)diboron (1.53 g, 6.04 mmol), PdCl₂(dppf).CH₂Cl₂ (221 mg, 0.302 mmol), and KOAc (889 mg, 9.06 mmol) in anhydrous dioxane (15.1 mL) was stirred for 18 h at 90° C. After cooling to RT, the reaction mixture was diluted with EtOAc (30 mL), and the resulting suspension was filtered. The filtrate was slowly treated with saturated NaHCO_(3(aq)) (10 mL). The biphasic mixture was stirred for 5 min at RT, and then concentrated. The residue was partitioned between EtOAc (20 mL) and water (15 mL) and filtered to remove insoluble material. Following phase separation, the aqueous extracts were concentrated. The residue was purified by C18 reverse phase chromatography (0-90% ACN in water) to afford the title compound (243 mg, 19%). MS (apci) m/z=264.0 (boronic acid M+H).

Step 3: Preparation of 1-cyclohexyl-3-cyclopropyl-5-iodo-1H-pyrazole and 1-cyclohexyl-3-cyclopropyl-3-iodo-1H-pyrazole. In a pressure vessel, a solution of 3-cyclopropyl-5-iodo-1H-pyrazole (73 mg, 0.31 mmol) in DMF (1560 μL) was treated with 60% NaH (19 mg, 0.47 mmol). The resulting mixture was stirred for 5 min at RT, before introducing cyclohexyl 4-methylbenzenesulfonate (135 mg, 0.53 mmol). Subsequently, the reaction vessel was sealed. The reaction mixture then was stirred for 18 h at 90° C., followed by 4 h at 100° C. After cooling to RT, the reaction mixture was treated with additional 60% NaH (13 mg, 0.31 mmol) and cyclohexyl 4-methylbenzenesulfonate (79 mg, 0.31 mmol). The mixture was then stirred for an additional 60 h at 80° C. After subsequently cooling to RT, the reaction mixture was quenched with water, and extracted with EtOAc. The organic extracts were concentrated, and the residue was purified by silica chromatography (0-20% EtOAc in hexanes) to afford a 1:1 regioisomeric mixture of the title compounds (37 mg, 37%). MS (apci) m/z=317.0 (M+H).

Step 4: Preparation of 3-(1-cyclohexyl-3-cyclopropyl-1H-pyrazol-5-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine. In a pressure vessel, a 1:1 mixture of 1-cyclohexyl-3-cyclopropyl-5-iodo-1H-pyrazole and 1-cyclohexyl-3-cyclopropyl-3-iodo-1H-pyrazole (37 mg, 0.12 mmol) was combined with a suspension of sodium hydrogen (4-acetamido-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-3-yl)boronate (67 mg, 0.23 mmol), Pd(PPh₃)₄ (14 mg, 0.012 mmol), 1 M Na₂CO_(3(aq)) (468 μL, 0.47 mmol) in dioxane (585 μL). The resulting suspension was sealed and stirred for 18 h at 90° C. After cooling to RT, the reaction mixture was concentrated and purified by reverse phase chromatography (0 to 95% ACN in water with 0.1% TFA) to afford the title compound as a TFA salt. Fractions containing the TFA salt were combined, and passed through a Pl-HCO₃ resin to elute the title compound as the free base after removal of solvent (8 mg, 19%). MS (apci) m/z=366.3 (M+H).

Example 27

3-(3-cyclopropyl-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazol-5-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine

Step 1: Preparation of 3-cyclopropyl-5-iodo-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazole and 3-cyclopropyl-3-iodo-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazole. A solution of 3-cyclopropyl-5-iodo-1H-pyrazole (73 mg, 0.31 mmol) in DMF (1560 μL) was treated with NaH (60%, 15 mg, 0.37 mmol). The resulting mixture was stirred for 5 min at RT, before introducing 2-bromopropane (77 mg, 0.62 mmol). Subsequently, the reaction mixture was stirred for 40 h at 80° C., and then for 3 h at 100° C. After cooling to RT, the reaction mixture was treated with additional NaH (60%, 13 mg, 0.31 mmol) and 2-bromopropane (38.5 mg, 0.31 mmol). The mixture was stirred for an additional 16 h at 90° C. After subsequently cooling to RT, the reaction mixture was quenched with water, and extracted with EtOAc. The organic extracts were concentrated, and the residue was purified by silica chromatography (0-3% EtOAc in hexanes) to afford a 1:1 regioisomeric mixture of the title compounds (70 mg, 81%). MS (apci) m/z=277.1 (M+H).

Step 2: Preparation of 3-(3-cyclopropyl-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazol-5-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine. In a pressure vessel, a 1:1 mixture of 1-cyclohexyl-3-cyclopropyl-5-iodo-1H-pyrazole and 1-cyclohexyl-3-cyclopropyl-3-iodo-1H-pyrazole (110 mg, 0.40 mmol) was combined with a suspension of sodium hydrogen (4-acetamido-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-3-yl)boronate (Example 26, Step 2; 102 mg, 0.36 mmol), Pd(PPh₃)₄ (23 mg, 0.020 mmol) and 1 M Na₂CO_(3(aq)) (598 μL, 0.60 mmol) in dioxane (996 μL). The resulting mixture was sealed and stirred for 18 h at 90° C. After cooling to RT, the reaction mixture was concentrated and purified by reverse phase chromatography (0 to 95% ACN in water with 0.1% TFA) to afford the title as the TFA salt. Fractions containing the TFA salt were combined, and passed through a Pl-HCO₃ resin to elute the free-based product after removal of solvent (8 mg, 12%). MS (apci) m/z=326.2 (M+H).

Example 28

1-isopropyl-3-(4-methyl-1-(tetrahydro-2H-pyran-2-yl)-1H-pyrazol-5-yl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine

In a pressure vessel, a mixture of 3-bromo-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (Intermediate 1, 50 mg, 0.20 mmol), 4-methyl-1-(tetrahydro-2H-pyran-2-yl)-5-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)-1H-pyrazole (85.6 mg, 0.29 mmol), K₂CO₃ (2 N, aq) (586 μL, 1.17 mmol) and Pd(Ph₃P)₄ (5.6 mg, 0.0048 mmol) in dioxane (781 μL) was sparged with nitrogen, sealed and stirred at 100° C. for 22 h. After cooling to RT and phase-separation, the organic layer was concentrated and treated with reverse-phase chromatography (5 to 50% MeCN in water) to yield the title product as white solid (20 mg, 30%). MS (apci) m/z=342.2 (M+H).

Example 29

3-(1-cyclopropyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine

In a pressure vessel, a solution of 3-bromo-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (Intermediate 1, 50 mg, 0.195 mmol), 1-cyclopropyl-4-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)-1H-pyrazole (50.3 mg, 0.215 mmol), and Pd(P Ph₃)₄ (5.64 mg, 0.00488 mmol) in dioxane (781 μL, 0.195 mmol) was treated with 2 N K₂CO_(3(aq)) (586 μL, 1.17 mmol). Subsequently, the vessel was purged with N_(2(g)) and then sealed. The reaction mixture was stirred at 100° C. for 1 h. After cooling to RT, the biphasic mixture was separated. The organic layer was concentrated and purified with reverse-phase chromatography (5 to 40% ACN in water) and then silica chromatography (50% acetone in hexanes) to afford the title compound as white solid (19 mg, 34.0%). MS (apci) m/z=284.1 (M+H).

Example 30

1-isopropyl-3-(3-vinyl-1H-pyrazol-5-yl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine hydrochloride

1-Isopropyl-3-(1-(tetrahydro-2H-pyran-2-yl)-3-vinyl-1H-pyrazol-5-yl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (Example 22, 4.0 mg, 0.011 mmol) was treated with 6 N HCl_((aq)) (75 μL, 0.45 mmol), yielding a white suspension. MeOH was dropwise until a clear colorless solution was obtained. The mixture was allowed to react for 10 min. It was then diluted with MeOH (0.5 mL) and concentrated to afford the title product as white solid (2.8 mg, 81%). MS (apci) m/z=270.2 (M+H).

Example 31

1-isopropyl-3-(5-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-pyrazol-3-yl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine dihydrochloride

To a solution of 1-isopropyl-3-(1-(tetrahydro-2H-pyran-2-yl)-3-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-pyrazol-5-yl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (Example 25, 5.3 mg, 0.013 mmol) in MeOH (67 μL, 0.013 mmol) was added 6 N HCl_((aq)) (89 μL, 0.54 mmol). The mixture was allowed to react for 5 min. It was then concentrated to afford the title product as white solid (5.1 mg, 99%). MS (apci) m/z=312.1 (M+H).

Example 32

1-(3-(4-amino-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-3-yl)-5-methyl-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)ethan-1-one

Step 1: Preparation of 1-isopropyl-3-(5-methyl-1H-pyrazol-3-yl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine. Into a pressure vessel was added 3-bromo-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (Intermediate 1, 102 mg, 0.398 mmol), 3-methyl-5-(4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,2-dioxaborolan-2-yl)-1H-pyrazole (99.4 mg, 0.478 mmol), Pd(PPh₃)₄ (23.0 mg, 0.0199 mmol), Na₂CO_(3(s)) (127 mg, 1.19 mmol) and dioxane (1593 μL, 0.398 mmol). Subsequently, the vessel was sealed and heated at 100° C. for 60 h. After cooling to RT, the mixture was diluted with water (5 mL). The resulting solid was collected by filtration and rinsed with water (2 mL) and MTBE and dried to afford the title compound as white solid (65 mg, 63.4%). MS (apci) m/z=258.2 (M+H).

Step 2: Preparation of 1-(3-(4-amino-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-3-yl)-5-methyl-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)ethan-1-one. To a suspension of 1-isopropyl-3-(5-methyl-H-pyrazol-3-yl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (26 mg, 0.101 mmol) in DCM (1010 μL, 0.101 mmol) was added acetic anhydride (10.0 μL, 0.106 mmol), followed by N,N-dimethylpyridin-4-amine (1.23 mg, 0.0101 mmol). The mixture was stirred at RT for 22 h, and additional acetic anhydride (4.75 μL, 0.0505 mmol) was added. Stirring was continued at RT for 3 h. The mixture was concentrated, and purified with reverse phase chromatography (0 to 95% ACN in water) to afford the title compound as white solid (6.0 mg, 19.8%). MS (apci) m/z=300.2 (M+H).

Example 33

1-isopropyl-3-(1-methyl-1H-imidazol-2-yl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine

Step 1: Preparation of 2-(4-acetamido-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-3-yl)-4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,214-dioxaborolan-2-yl acetate sodium salt. Into a pressure vessel was added N-(3-bromo-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-yl)acetamide (Example 26, step 1, 300 mg, 1.01 mmol), bis(pinacolato)diboron (511.0 mg, 2.01 mmol), Pd(dppf)Cl₂ (73.6 mg, 0.101 mmol), KOAc(s) (296.260 mg, 3.02 mmol), and anhydrous 1,4-dioxane (5031.13 μL, 1.0 mmol). Subsequently, the vessel was sealed and heated at 90° C. under N_(2(g)) for 18 h. After cooling to RT, ethyl acetate (10 mL) was added. Stirring was continued for 3 min, and the resulting suspension was filtered. The filtrate was treated with Na₂CO_(3(aq)) (2 M, 5 mL). The resulting mixture was filtered to provide the title compound as off-white solid (243 mg, 56.5%). MS (apci) m/z=264.1 (M+H of the corresponding boronic acid).

Step 2: Preparation of 1-isopropyl-3-(1-methyl-1H-imidazol-2-yl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine. To a mixture of 2-(4-acetamido-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-3-yl)-4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-1,3,214-dioxaborolan-2-yl acetate sodium salt (36 mg, 0.084 mmol) and 2-bromo-1-methyl-1H-imidazole (28 mg, 0.17 mmol) in dioxane (0.6 mL) was added Pd(PPh₃)₄ (10 mg, 0.0085 mmol). The resulting mixture was sparged with Ar_((g)), treated with K₃PO_(4(aq)) (2 M, 0.13 mL, 0.25 mmol), and heated to 90° C. for 20 h. After cooling to RT, the reaction was concentrated and purified with reverse-phase chromatography (5 to 90% ACN in water) to provide the title compound (0.6 mg, 2.8%). MS (apci) m/z=258.1 (M+H).

Example 34

3-(4-cyclopropyl-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine

A mixture of 3-iodo-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (Example 18, step 1, 163 mg, 0.54 mmol), 4-cyclopropyl-1H-pyrazole (116 mg, 1.1 mmol), K₂CO_(3(s)) (149 mg, 1.1 mmol), copper (I) iodide (21 mg, 0.11 mmol), and (1R,2R)—N¹,N²-dimethylcyclohexane-1,2-diamine (43 μL, 0.27 mmol) in DMF (5.38 mL) was sparged with Ar_((g)) and stirred at 110° C. until completion as determined by chromatographic (TLC or LC) monitoring. The resulting mixture was purified with silica chromatography (0 to 20% MeOH in DCM) to afford the title compound (115 mg, 75.5%). MS (apci) m/z=284.1 [M+H].

Example 35

1-isopropyl-3-(1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine

Step 1: Preparation of 1-isopropyl-3-((trimethylsilyl)ethynyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine. Into a 9.0 mL sealable vessel was added 3-iodo-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (Example 18, step 1, 500 mg, 1.65 mmol), copper (I) iodide (15.7 mg, 0.0825 mmol), and trans-dichlorobis(triphenylphosphine)palladium (II) (116 mg, 0.165 mmol). Subsequently, the vessel was evacuated and backfilled with Ar_((g)) over three cycles. DMF (2.3 mL) and triethylamine (696 μL, 4.95 mmol) were added. The reaction vessel was evacuated and backfilled with Ar_((g)) over two more cycles. Ethynyltrimethylsilane (2285 μL, 16.5 mmol) was then added, and the reaction was stirred at RT for 70 h. The reaction mixture was diluted with DCM, filtered through a pad of celite, washed with water, and concentrated in vacuo. The resulting residue was purified with silica chromatography (0 to 10% MeOH in DCM) to afford the title compound with residual solvents (523 mg, 116%). MS (apci) m/z=274.1.

Step 2: Preparation of 3-ethynyl-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine. To a solution of 1-isopropyl-3-((trimethylsilyl)ethynyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (500 mg, 1.8287 mmol) in MeOH (5.5 mL) was added anhydrous K₂CO₃ (126.37 mg, 0.91436 mmol). The reaction was stirred at RT for 3 h. The resulting mixture was concentrated and filtered through a plug of celite (0 to 5% of MeOH in DCM). The combined fractions were concentrated, dissolved in DCM, and washed with water to afford the title compound (287 mg, 78.0%). MS (apci) m/z=202.1 (M+H).

Step 3: Preparation of 1-isopropyl-3-(1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine. To a solution of 3-ethynyl-1-isopropyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-amine (287 mg, 1.43 mmol) in dioxane at 0° C. was added azidotrimethylsilane (322 μL, 2.42 mmol) and copper (I) iodide (1.93 μL, 0.0570 mmol). The reaction was stirred at 100° C. overnight. The resulting mixture was sparged with Ar_((g)) and heated at 100° C. until LC/MS indicated the complete consumption of the starting material. The resulting mixture was filtered. The filtrate was concentrated and purified with silica chromatography (0 to 15% MeOH in DCM) to afford the title compound (66.7 mg, 19.1%). MS (apci) m/z=245.1.

ABBREVIATIONS

18-Crown-6 1,4,7,10,13,16-hexaoxacyclooctadecane ACN Acetonitrile AcOH Acetic Acid AC₂O Acetic Anhydride (±)-BINAP 2,2′-Bis(diphenylphosphino)-1,1′-binaphthalene bis(pinacolato)diboron 4,4,4′,4′,5,5,5′,5′-octamethyl-2,2′-bi(1,3,2-dioxaborolane) Boc-anhydride di-tert-butyl dicarbonate BTI (bis(trifluoroacetoxy)iodo)benzene BF₃•Et₂O Boron trifluoride diethyl etherate n-BuLi n-butyllithium or 1-butyllithium s-BuOH Sec-Butanol or 2-Butanol t-BuOH tert-Butanol or 2-Methylpropan-2-ol Celite ® Diatomaceous earth; SiO₂ CuI Copper (I) Iodide d day, days DBU 1,8-Diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene DCE 1,2-Dichloroethane DCM Dichloromethane DIEA N,N-Diisopropylethylamine DMA N,N-Dimethylacetamide DMAP 4-Dimethylaminopyridine DME 1,2-Dimethoxyethane DMF N,N-Dimethylformamide DMP Dess-MartinPeriodinane; 1,1,1-Tris(acetyloxy)-1,1-dihydro-1,2- benziodoxol-3-(1H)-one DMSO Dimethyl sulfoxide dioxane 1,4-dioxane EDC-HCl 1-Ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide hydrochloride eq equivalent Et₂O Diethyl Ether EtOAc Ethyl Acetate EtOH Ethanol GF/F paper GF/F glass microfiber filter paper h hour, hours HATU 1-[Bis(dimethylamino)methylene]-1H-1,2,3-triazolo[4,5- b]pyridinium 3-oxide hexafluorophosphate or 2-(7-Aza-1H- benzotriazole-1-yl)-1,1,3,3-tetramethyluronium hexafluorophosphate HBTU 3-[Bis(dimethylamino)methyliumyl]-3H-benzotriazol-1-oxide hexafluorophosphate or 2-(1H-benzotriazole-1-yl)-1,1,3,3- tetramethyluronium hexafluorophosphate isobutyl chloroformate isobutyl carbonochloridate isovaleryl chloride 3-methylbutanoyl chloride iPrOH Isopropanol KOAc Potassium Acetate KOtBu Potassium tert-Butoxide K₂HPO₄ Potassium Phosphate, Dibasic LCMS Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry LiHMDS Lithium Hexamethyldisilazide; or Lithium bis(trimethylsilyl)amide Me₄N(AcO)₃BH Tetramethylammonium Triacetoxyborohydride NaBH(AcO)₃ Sodium Triacetoxyborohydride NaBH₃CN Sodium cyanoborohydride MeOH Methanol MeMgBr Methyl magnesium bromide min minute, minutes MSH o-(mesitylsulfonyl)hydroxylamine MsCl methanesulfonyl chloride MTBE Methyl tert-Butyl Ether NaOAc Sodium Acetate NBS N-Bromosuccinimide NCS N-Chlorosuccinimide NIS N-Iodosuccinimide NH₂OH•HCl hydroxylamine hydrochloride NMO 4-methylmorpholine-4-oxide P1-HCO₃ resin Stratospheres MP-HCO3 10% Pd/C Palladium 10 wt % (dry basis), active carbon, wet, Degussa Pd(PPh₃)₄ Tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium (0) Pd₂(dba)₃ tris(dibenzylideneacetone)dipalladium (0) Pd₂(dba)₃•CHCl₃ tris(dibenzylideneacetone)dipalladium (0) chloroform complex PdCl₂₍dppf)•CH₂Cl₂ 1,1′-Bis(diphenylphosphino)ferrocene-palladium(II)dichloride dichloromethane complex PdCl₂(PPh₃)₂ Palladium(II)bis(triphenylphosphine) dichloride PdCl₂[P(cy)₃]₂ Bis(tricyclohexylphosphine)palladium(II) dichloride PPTS Pyridinium p-toluenesulfonate PS frit Biotage ® “Isolute Phase Separators” PS paper Whatman ® silicone treated Phase Separators filter paper PVDF (0.45 μm) disc polyvinylidene difluoride membrane with a 0.45-micron pore size RT Room temperature SOCl₂ Thionyl chloride TBAF Tetra-n-butylammonium fluoride TEA Triethylamine TFA Trifluoroacetic acid Tf-O-Tf trifluoromethanesulfonic anhydride THF tetrahydrofuran TMSCN Trimethylsilyl cyanide TsCl 4-Toluenesulfonyl chloride Triphosgene (bis(trichloromethyl) carbonate X-phos dicyclohexyl(2′,4′,6′-triisopropyl-[1,1′-biphenyl]-2-yl)phosphine 

What is claimed is:
 1. A compound of Formula I:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein: R¹ is:

R² is H, C₁-C₆ alkyl, C₁-C₆ alkyl-F, C₁-C₆ alkyl-CN, C₁-C₆ alkyl-OH, C₁-C₆ alkyl-(3- to 6-membered cycloalkyl), or 3- to 6-membered cycloalkyl; R^(a) is cyclopropyl; and R^(b) is:


2. The compound according to claim 1, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein R¹ is:


3. The compound according to claim 1, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein R¹ is:


4. The compound according to claim 1, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein R¹ is:


5. The compound according to claim 1, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein R² is C₁-C₆ alkyl.
 6. A pharmaceutical composition comprising a pharmaceutically acceptable diluent or carrier in admixture with a compound according to claim 1, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 7. A method for treating cancer in a patient in need thereof, wherein the method comprises administering to the patient an effective amount of a compound according to claim 1, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 8. The method according to claim 7, wherein the cancer is selected from the group consisting of breast cancer, cervical cancer, colorectal cancer, differentiated thyroid cancer, ganglioneuromatosis of the gastrocenteric mucosa, lung cancer, medullary thyroid cancer, multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A, multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2B, papillary renal cell carcinoma, papillary thyroid cancer, parathyroid hyperplasia, pheochromocytoma, and recurrent thyroid cancer.
 9. The method according to claim 8, wherein the cancer is medullary thyroid cancer.
 10. The method according to claim 8, wherein the differentiated thyroid cancer is refractory differentiated thyroid cancer.
 11. The method according to claim 8, wherein the lung cancer is RET fusion lung cancer.
 12. A compound selected from the group consisting of:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 13. A pharmaceutical composition comprising a pharmaceutically acceptable diluent or carrier in admixture with a compound according to claim 12, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 14. A method for treating cancer in a patient in need thereof, wherein the method comprises administering to the patient an effective amount of a compound according to claim 12, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 15. The method according to claim 14, wherein the cancer is selected from the group consisting of breast cancer, cervical cancer, colorectal cancer, differentiated thyroid cancer, ganglioneuromatosis of the gastrocenteric mucosa, lung cancer, medullary thyroid cancer, multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A, multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2B, papillary renal cell carcinoma, papillary thyroid cancer, parathyroid hyperplasia, pheochromocytoma, and recurrent thyroid cancer.
 16. The method according to claim 15, wherein the cancer is medullary thyroid cancer.
 17. The method according to claim 15, wherein the differentiated thyroid cancer is refractory differentiated thyroid cancer.
 18. The method according to claim 15, wherein the lung cancer is RET fusion lung cancer. 